HRM- job analysis and design

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in HRM- job analysis and design, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your HRM- job analysis and design paper at affordable prices with cheap essay writing service! I. Introduction.

The University of Melbourne is a large and developing corporation consisting of a diverse workforce of approximately 5000. The University realises that in order to achieve competitive advantage the firm must seek to harness their human resources in innovatory ways. Facilitation of such has been sought through the analysis and subsequent redesign of jobs. The current design of Human Resource Officer (HRO) strongly advocates the satisfaction of high quality work performance through the advancement of employee motivation. However, analysis provides that collateral refinement of the current design may further enhance the enrichment of the position.

II. Key Issues.

A. Job Analysis

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The importance of job analysis to managers and organisations can not be understated. Almost every HR activity requires some type of information that is gleaned from job analysis (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart and Patrick, 14). The environmental challenges facing today's rapidly evolving business world demand a proactive response from managers and HR, the information provided by job analysis more readily facilitates such a response (Werther and Davis, 16). There is, hence, pertinence in the notion that job analysis is the building block of all that a HR manager does (Noe et al, 14).

The prominence of job analysis in HRM is easily identifiable, the application extends much further than the shaping of job descriptions, but rather infiltrates a myriad of different HR activities such as, HR planning, selection, performance appraisal, training and development, and job evaluation (Blunt, 186).

Broadly speaking there are three alternative approaches to job analysis, explication of job content, job requirements and job context. Fortunately, these are not mutually exclusive and each will yield different insights and information regarding the job. It is necessary to examine all three approaches together, because a dependence on any one will skew the analysis (Billsberry, 000).

A number of alternative methods were adopted to analyse the position of HRO. More specifically, analysis involved the use of diaries, logs and interviews. Each job analysis method provides different type of information, the method used will ultimately depend on the type of information needed (Noe et al, 14). Interviews are an effective from of data collection as they enable the interviewer to explain unclear questions and probe into uncertain answers. Essentially, interviewing of the HRO ensures a high level of accuracy, although it is very time-consuming and costly (Werther et al, 16). The facilitation of an employee log or diary enables the HRO to periodically summarise tasks and activities. This collection of job information is generally regarded as being time-consuming for job holders and therefore proving costly, however it may be the only feasible method of analysis if interviews and questionnaires do not capture the complexity of the position (Stone, 00).

The success of an organisation rests heavily upon this detailed information. Thus, analysis is all about understanding, identifying and determining how the employee interacts with the job and the environment in which the job is set (Kelly and Clegg, 18). The basic premise, therefore, is that jobs are more likely to be described, differentiated, and evaluated consistently if accurate information is available (Bratton and Gold, 1). Moreover, the design and redesign of jobs becomes more readily accessible.

B. Interdependence between Job Analysis and Job Design.

The interdependence between job analysis and job design is unequivocally present. Often, a firm will seek to redesign work to make it more efficient and effective. To redesign the work, detailed information about the existing job must be available (Noe et al, 14). The organisation can then use the information generated via the written job descriptions and job specifications in the design or redesign of jobs (Stone, 00). Hence, it is important to understand the specific tasks so rendered by an employee in order to restructure or reallocate those tasks so that employee satisfaction and performance can be enhanced. The role of job analysis information consequently proves invaluable.

It is important to distinguish between the passive and active roles inherent in both practices. Where job analysis has focussed on analysing existing jobs to gather information, job design has more actively concentrated on redesigning existing jobs in order to promote efficiency and motivation. Thus job design maintains a more proactive orientation toward changing the job, whereas job analysis provides a passive information-gathering alignment (Noe et al, 14).

C. Job Design.

It is important to discern that organisations are structured around jobs, but the flexibility they seek is far more profound than simply considering new time patterns of work and new forms of pay (Sparrow and Marchington, 18). While these issues have to be considered, this is increasingly just a part of a total package, and part of a process that is compelling flexibility in the very definition of what a job constitutes (Hackman and Oldham, 180). As organisations attempt to introduce less rigid structures, extensive decentralisation and delegation of control, with enhanced productivity and competency in mind, they do so through the design of jobs.

A great deal of research has been conducted on the topic of job satisfaction, and a small number of important inferences about the ‘psychological requirements' for satisfying work have been drawn (Blunt, 186). The Hackman and Oldham model suggests the more that a job possesses five core job characteristics, the greater the motivating potential of the job. The existence of ‘moderators' such as knowledge and skills, growth need strength and context satisfactions explain why jobs theoretically high in motivating potential will not automatically generate high levels of motivation and satisfaction for all workers (Hackman et al, 180). This approach to job design emphasizes the fulfillment of social needs by recomposing fragmented jobs. First, there is a principle of closure, whereby the scope of the job is such that it includes all the tasks to complete a product or process, thus satisfying the social need of achievement. Second, there is the incorporation of control and monitoring tasks, whereby the individual or group assume responsibility for quality control. Third, there is a task variety whereby the worker acquires a range of different skills so that job flexibility is possible. Fourth, there is a self-regulation of the speed of work. Fifth, there is a job structure that permits some social interaction and a degree of cooperation amongst workers (Bratton et al, 000).

D. Design of the Human Resource Officer.

When determining whether the position of HRO at Melbourne University need be redesigned it is first important to identify the type of environment with which it interacts. Analysis indicates that the HRO works in a predominantly service based environment, utilising knowledge and skills based on HR principles. The process of redesigning the HROs job is, as such, more conducive to a worker centred accentuation, where emphasis is given to designing jobs which are propitious to worker motivation and job satisfaction (Blunt, 186). The converse method of redesigning the position would place greater emphasis upon the processes and equipment used, whereby jobs are designed so as to minimise production time through the development of rational methods of work and work specialisation (Kelly et al, 18). However, such strategical design issues are widely accepted as being the preserve of manufacturing operations as they seldom offer opportunities for accomplishment, recognition, psychological growth, or other sources of satisfaction (Werther et al, 16).

This indicates that the position of HRO can not be designed by using only elements that aid efficiency. Rather, HR managers must draw heavily on behavioural research to provide a work environment that helps satisfy individual needs. The five core job dimensions need be aligned directly to the position of HRO in order to promote employee motivation and satisfaction, this shall, consequently, manifest itself in the form of high quality performance and low staff turnover (Blunt, 186). The term job enrichment, therefore, holds significant aptness in the examination of this position.

Job enrichment refers to a number of different processes of rotating, enlarging and aggregating tasks (Bratten et al, 000). As will later be discussed, though, not all of these activities prove relevant to the position of HRO.

To adequately understand the position of HRO, management must first understand the larger context in which the job exists. To view the position in isolation from other jobs with which it is interdependent will result in a flawed conception of the position (Noe et al, 14). Analysis indicates the position lies within the Client Services Unit in the department of Human Resources. The issue of workflow design holds particular pertinence in the context of this examination. Workflow design recognises the analysis and subsequent design of the position of HRO is only effective when viewed with regard to the larger process of the unit's workflow (Noe et al, 14). Analysis indicates that this has readily been considered in the current design of the position as the roles and tasks of the HRO are soundly linked to the primary purpose and key activities of the Client Services Unit in which it operates.

D.1. Behavioural Elements.

As evidenced previously in the report, a major consideration in the design of jobs is the degree of task variety inherent in the position. The current design of HRO promotes employee satisfaction by injecting extensive diversity into job tasks. The impetus behind the variety, is to reduce the boredom and monotony associated with performing one simplified task, through the diversification of worker activities (Bratten et al, 000). The undergoing of multiple tasks and activities such as recruitment, payroll and training operates to expand the job cycle and draw on a wider range of employee skills. Such a practice is commonly referred to as horizontal loading (Werther et al, 16), however it appears not to have been intently pursued as a component of the job design, but rather a product of necessity.

A recent review of the position has resulted in a series of changes. These variations see certain payroll aspects of the position being removed so as to be rendered by staff in other sections of HR. Accordingly, the HROs position in more complex activities has been enhanced. The intrinsic motivation behind such restructuring is to seek increased organisational versatility by tapping, and better matching, the skills, capabilities, adaptability and creativity of the workforce through management intervention (Sparrow et al, 18). Relevant to the position of HRO, such intervention has also attempted to reduce boredom by curtailing tedious activities. This appears to be a sound decision made by management, and is upheld by extensive research.

Intrinsic and extrinsic feedback also constitutes a subset of overall job enrichment, and holds that the effectiveness of work activities should be validated by other members of staff and through the actual undertaking of a task itself. The notion provides that when jobs do not give employees feedback as to how well they are doing, there is little guidance or motivation to perform better (Werther et al, 16). Prompt feedback of results allows for inaccurate behaviour to be rapidly corrected. Analysis provides that consultants, team leaders, and managers heavily support this extrinsic aspect in the current design by providing accurate information regarding the effectiveness of the HROs performance. Furthermore, the design permits clients to provide feedback. This ensures that the actual service provided by the HRO is monitored and appraised by those most reliant upon it, whilst contemporaneously offering an avenue for recognition and appreciation of one's work.

Recognition and appreciation are closely linked to the notion of task significance. In essence, appreciating that the work is important to others advances experienced meaningfulness and determines the extent to which the HRO finds the work meaningful, valuable and worthwhile (Billsberry, 000). The questionnaire indicates that task significance, although not constituting a major facet of the job design, is however present in the form of remuneration. The HRO may experience an even further sense of self-importance if task significance was enhanced. Such a notion will be touched upon in the recommendations.

It becomes evident, through analysis, that in most instances the job requires the completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. This operates to satisfy the principle of closure wherein the HRO feels that he/she is making an identifiable contribution to the successful running of the organisation (Kelly et al, 18). Without task identity, the HRO may hold little sense of responsibility and pride in task results. The recommendation section will offer a proposal pertaining to increased knowledge development that will seek to ensure the exclusive completion of every task, in an effort to succor further job enrichment.

HRO involvement in more complex activities, planning days and the revision of their own PDs is a critical aspect of the current design of the position. The involvement emphasises operational knowledge so as to place the HRO in a better position to see the interrelationships between certain actions and resulting consequences. Accentuation is placed on broader and more proactive role orientations as well as the deployment and acquiring of more specific organisational knowledge (Sparrow et al, 18). Essentially, HRO involvement in both personal and organisational aspects of work advocates continuous employee learning, insight and development. Another means of ensuring such development has been touched upon by the current design of the position, it is commonly referred to as vertical loading.

Vertical loading seeks to add new sources of satisfaction to the job, by increasing responsibility, autonomy, and control (Werther et al, 16). Analysis indicates these characteristics do constitute a facet of the current design, however the issue remains whether these job attributes may be further abetted so as to enhance efficiency. The autonomy and control the HRO holds over the application of most day to day tasks impels a freedom to control their response to the environment. Research provides that jobs giving workers authority to make decisions provides added responsibilities that tend to increase an employee's sense of recognition and self-esteem and enhance opportunities for personal development, variety, and meaningfulness in work (Blunt, 186). The absence of autonomy, by contrast, can cause employee apathy or poor performance. Management at Melbourne University must nourish the notion that the HRO has control over activities, but not so much as to prevent them from knowing what to do next.

E. Issues of Design.

Job design as a concept captures a kaleidoscope of ad hoc and opportunistic initiatives. However, experience shows that these initiatives all risk high levels of failure if design and organisational implications are not adequately considered (Sparrow et al, 18). In the context of this examination, for instance, job rotation can not be regarded as a viable approach to job design. Analysis indicates that the HRO requires a great deal of experience, education and knowledge specific to the position. Staff in other areas can not easily reproduce these attributes, conversely it may prove difficult for the HRO to effectively discharge the work of another. This further reiterates the need for in-depth analysis prior to subsequent redesign implementation.

In designing jobs it is important to understand the trade off's inherent in focussing on one particular approach to job design (Noe et al, 14). Job enrichment is not a cure-all technique. Rather, it is a tool employed when analysis indicates that jobs are unrewarding, unchallenging and limit the motivation and satisfaction of employees. There is congruity, thus, in the concept that enriching the job while ignoring other variables that contribute to the quality of work life may simply increase dissatisfaction with the unimproved aspects of the job (Werther et al, 16).

Moreover, an influential study by Friedman (177) argues that although job enrichment techniques, such as vertical loading, may increase job satisfaction and commitment, the key focus remains managerial control. He maintains that job design strategies as a whole result in individuals being given a wider measure of discretion over their work with a minimum of supervision, and this ‘responsible autonomy' strategy is a means of maintaining and augmenting managerial authority over workers (Bratten et al, 000).

III. Recommendations.

It is to be noted that the current design of the position facilitates, to a large degree the five core job characteristics proposed by Hackman and Oldham (180). The University of Melbourne has, thus, harnessed their human resources in an innovatory manner in order to gain a competitive advantage. I propose, though, that further refinement of the current design may subsequently enhance such an advantage.

A. Increased Involvement in Planning and Strategic Issues.

As evidenced in the body of the report, the notion of task significance advances the meaningfulness an employee holds toward the job. Relevant to the position of HRO this meaningfulness may be further abetted by increased involvement in HR planning and strategic issues that are directly related to the advancement of organisational prosperity. Engagement in such activities will not only facilitate increased operational knowledge and skill, but also offer an opportunity for the HRO to be appointed to a more senior role within HR, indications of which appear within the analysis. Employee performance and motivation will inevitably be enhanced by the knowledge that the attainment of goals relates directly to opportunities for personal and professional fulfillment.

B. Knowledge Development Program.

Analysis indicates that although in most cases the HRO is able to complete a whole and identifiable piece of work there are instances in which the satisfaction of this requirement is left unfulfilled. These instances are the result of the HRO being unable to adequately draw upon the requisite skills and knowledge in answering particular client queries. The involvement of more senior staff and those with specialist skills is, thus, necessitated. This may result in the HRO holding little sense of responsibility and pride in task results. It is, therefore, recommended that the position be redesigned so as to facilitate further employee knowledge and skill pertaining to a more diverse range of issues. This requires the implementation of an employee training and development program that seeks to aid learning and growth in HRO competency and proficiency, thereby advancing the completion of every task from beginning to end. The obvious drawback to such a strategy is centred upon cost of design and implementation.

C. Facilitation of an Autonomous Work Team.

The most prominent redesign recommendation sees the facilitation of an autonomous work team. Analysis indicates that the coordination of such a team within the Client Services Unit is readily accessible. The strategy sees the unit being extensively trained to do each other's jobs and allows members to share and allocate among themselves the requirements for control and coordination of their task-related activities. The group thereby assumes responsibility for more than just the sum of the individual tasks (Billsberry, 000). In addition, the group takes responsibility for task interdependencies and for monitoring and controlling the contributions of its members. The role of the supervisor changes from that of direct control to a linking function between the work group and the larger organisation (Kelly et al, 18). This approach to job design shall seek to promote high productivity and quality while enhancing the quality of work life for the HRO and relevant team members. A sustainable competitive advantage through the notion of collaboration and reliance is the result.

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The Mezanine

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The Mezzanine A Review

By Lacey Kaufman

Upon beginning to read the Mezzanine I felt the urge to disregard the book in its entirety. The long passages about this thing or that thing was tedious and it was hard to follow just for the simple reason that it was different than that which I am used to reading. Eventually, however, I did settle into the book and let the words develop into sense in their own time. The most enjoyable parts of the book are the ones that smack with familiarity, knowing that I have thought something similar to what Baker is saying . These thoughts, easily recognizable but never clearly defined, where like a reminder of a dream that I could not remember.

The Mezzanine follows a character, Howie, through each of his thoughts for only the beginning of a work day. The reader does not only get to look at the characters present state of mind though, for his thoughts are all deeply rooted in origin and habit, of which he is more than happy to share. This back history for each thought, makes the reader realize that each of his own thoughts have a history, although quite original, not that different from the ones that Baker describes. Throughout the morning, this business man addresses ideas, so intricate and fresh that at first they appear alarming. Baker's character even comes off as a little bit "crazy", and yet he knows himself better than most all readers. The only disappointing part of his stairway of thoughts is the fact that he rarely addresses what could be improved in his own realm of emotional and intellectual security. Baker eludes to his characters insecurity and dissatisfaction with his own life, only briefly. There is a line in the first half in which Howie relates that he has not become the man he had wished, and even expected to become. He also seems to have a spiritual battle with his lustful thoughts, this is shown through a disturbing relationship between himself and a female cashier who sells him Penthouse (though he would rather be purchasing the filthiest of the smut such as, Club). In Howie's list of thoughts some of them are that he has no friends, and that his friends are smarter than him. This shows not only his truly human reactions, but an insecurity that, unlike the bulk of his thoughts, illogically and not based on anything factual.

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I think this book is more for the male population, for there are several parts to which Justus could relate wholly, while I was left looking through the window into a mind very much unlike my own. Of course this is more than just because Justus is male and I am female; he constantly thinks about the details of life that I rarely consider. The male driven prospective is shown most evidently when Howie speaks of urinals, and the fascination with women taking their bras off while remaining dressed.

It is truly amazing that Baker and explore so many avenues of reality through the morning of one man's thoughts. Each topic of our humanities class was covered at least briefly and always in perspective I hd yet to consider. Gender is explored by viewing things through a males eyes. Relationships are looked at by the way he treats his coworkers, his girlfriend L, and his parents. Howie seems almost cold to anything that can not be picked apart, but I don't think that, that's entirely true; maybe he was just not thinking about people as much as he was about things on the morning we share with him.

Overall I think the book is an amazing piece of Art that allows each reader to rethink his rethinking. With each moment there is a fragment of history, our own, and others. Upon closer examination, perhaps we all could benefit from Howie's perspective of life.

Please note that this sample paper on The Mezanine is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Mezanine, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on The Mezanine will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Malcolm X and his Views of the"White Man" in America Before and After Mecca

If you order your Cheap Custom Essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Malcolm X and his Views of the"White Man" in America Before and After Mecca. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Malcolm X and his Views of the"White Man" in America Before and After Mecca paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Malcolm X and his Views of the"White Man" in America Before and After Mecca, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Malcolm X and his Views of the"White Man" in America Before and After Mecca paper at affordable prices with cheap essay writing service! Malcolm X was a very important figure for the black race in America during his time. Fighting against racism, oppression and segregation, he was one of Americas leaders for African American democracy and black liberation in the United States. During Malcolm's pilgrimage to the holy City of Mecca, his views of the white race drastically changed within a few months. With the society of America and the orthodox Muslim religion of Islam as his guide, Malcolm had two completely opposite views of whites before and after his trip to Mecca. This change of thought was a very intricate part of Malcolms life, because it helped him see the intricacy of the white and black race problem in America. From this gained knowledge, Malcolm also realizes that the solution of the racial problem in America, is the Muslim religion where both races accept the Oneness of God and become "brothers" despite the differences in color and appearance.

Before Malcolm's pilgrimage, he viewed the white man as the "devil" of the world. From childhood, Malcolm had been looking for an answer or excuse that explained the black man's racial problems in America. With the help of Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm found thought he had fond the answer when he developed the theory of black separation from the white devil. During and Malcolm's pilgrimage, his thoughts changed as he realized and witnessed the truth about the white man throughout the world. Malcolm saw that, both the white and black race could be brother and sister, through Islam

Malcolms childhood had an immediate affect on his views of himself and whites in America. Malcolm witnessed firsthand the violence of racism projected by the white man. Louis Decardo explains this idea as he writes, In the particular sense of racism, Malcolm would come to know from his youth the reality of white racial animosity and innocence toward the black struggle. During Malcolms youth he and his family were harassed and threatened by white racists. Malcolm describes this harassment as he writes, The white kids didnt make any great thing abut us, either. They called us nigger and darkie and Rastus so much that we thought those were our natural names. This had an immediate impact on his perception of the white race as whole. At the mere age of six, the little family suffered an everlasting loss when Malcolms father was murdered by white racists. Louis Decardo describes how Malcolm viewed his father's death as he writes, Like the rest of the family, Malcolm viewed his fathers tragic death through the lens of a racist system. In an interview with Kennith Clark, Malcolm shows his reasoning behind this belief as he states, The police department and various branches of the law were interwoven with that Klan element, so the Klan had the backing of the police, and usually the police had the backing of the Klan. The culmination of Malcolms childhood experiences caused Malcolm to start to develop a feeling of animosity towards the white race. Michael Dyson describes this feeling that Malcolm develops in the passage below

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This experience of racial violence, which Malcolm termed his earliest vivid memory, deeply influenced his unsparing denunciation of white racism during his public career as a Black Nationalist leader.

Another event that had an impact on Malcolm occurred during his schooling when his dreams of becoming a lawyer were broken by Mr. Ostrowski his 8th grade English teacher. Malcolms dreams vanish when Mr. Ostrowski states, But youve got to be realistic about being a nigger. A lawyer -- thats no realistic goal for a nigger. You need to think about something you can be. This conversation forced Malcolm to realize the degree of racism and the lack of equal opportunity that occurred in the Americas society during that time. That event marked the first major change in Malcolms association with and perception of himself in the eyes of the white man in America. This devastating insult caused Malcolm to virtuously abandon his schoolwork and question his identity as a member of the black race. This realization caused Malcolm to search for an identity. Realizing the status of blacks he tries to remake himself into a white person by acquiring a zoot suit, wearing a conk hair cut, walking a diddybop, dancing a lindy hop and most importantly dating a white woman. Malcolm shows this by stating, I was trying as hard as I could to become white. Malcolm finally thinks he has found himself when he adopts the hood mentality, which got him familiar with hoodlums, thieves, dope peddlers, and pimps. This eventually lead to Malcolms seven-year imprisonment at the mere age of 0.

In prison, Malcolm was introduced to the religion of Islam, which guided him to a new and more powerful feeling towards the white race throughout the world. The religion of Islam, the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, a man by the name of John Elton Bembry (whom Malcolm called Bimbi) and Malcolms older brother, Reginald helped lead Malcolm to a new view of history and religion along with this new vision of whites in the world. Bimbi influenced Malcolms decision to take his first steps towards the religion of Islam, which include this new vision. With the quote in mind, If you take one step towards Allah -- Allah will take two steps towards you. Malcolm took his first steps, which were to stop eating pork and to stop smoking cigarettes. Malcolm starts to develop new feelings towards whites when Reginald states, The white man is the devil and when he explained how "slavery had deprived Americas blacks of their cultural roots and left them mentally dead. A piece of this conversation is shown in Malcolms Autobiography as he writes

You dont even know who you are," Reginald had said. You dont even know, the white devil has hidden it from you, that you are a race of ancient civilizations, and riches in gold and kings. You dont even know your true family name, you wouldnt recognize your true language if you heard it. You have been cut off by the devil white man from all true knowledge of your own kind. You have been a victim of the evil of the devil white man ever since he murdered and raped and stole you from your native land in the seeds of your forefathers.

This conversation made Malcolm realize the truth about his race in relation to the white race in America and this discussion is what sparked the fire that Malcolm developed towards whites. Within the next month, Malcolm decided to accept the teachings of Elijah Muhammad," who taught him the natural religion and true knowledge of the black man through the religion of Islam. This passage from Malcolms autobiography shows the true knowledge summed up

The true knowledge, reconstructed much more briefly that I received it, was that history has been whitened in the white mans history books, and that the black man had been brainwashed for hundreds of years. Originally Man was black, in the continent called Africa where the human race had emerged on the planet earth... Human historys greatest crime was the traffic in black flesh when the devil white man went into Africa and murdered and kidnapped to bring to the West in chains, in slave ships, millions of black men, women, and children who were worked and beaten and tortured as slaves. ... The devil white man cut these black people off from all knowledge of their kind, and cut them off from any knowledge of their own language, religion, and past culture, until the black man in America was the earths only race of people who had absolutely no knowledge of his true identity.

As Malcolm became more exposed to Elijah Mohammed's teachings he began to accept them, and he started to look for his own proof for the things that he was hearing. Malcolm begins to read books about the details of black history, which also contributed to his feelings for whites. Malcolm shows what he has learned about black history as he writes, History has been so whitened by the white man that even the black professors have known little more than the most ignorant black man about the talents and rich civilizations of the black man of millenniums ago.

As a preacher, Malcolm represented Elijah Mohammed's and revealed his teachings about the white devil in America. Malcolm had more faith in the teachings of Elijah Muhammad than any other word upon the earth. By now, Malcolm believed the white man was the devil. In Malcolms autobiography he shows his thoughts about the white mans persuasive Christian religion in the passage below

Brothers and sisters, the white man has brainwashed us black people to fasten our gaze upon a blond-haired, blue-eyed Jesus! We are worshiping a Jesus that doesnt even look like us! Oh. yes! Now just bear with me, listen to the teachings of the Messenger of Allah, The Honorable Elijah Muhammad. Now just think of this. The blond-haired, blue-eyed white man has taught you and me to worship a white Jesus, and to shout and sing and pray to this God thats his God, the white mans God. And while we are doing all that, for himself, this blue-eyed devil has twisted his Christianity, to keep his foot on our backs . . . to keep our eyes fixed on the pie in the sky and heaven in the hereafter . . . while he enjoys his heaven right here . . . on this earth . . . in this life.

Malcolm believed that the white man would continue to use the black man and that the white man will never give the black man anything more than token integration. This caused Malcolm to believe in Elijah Mohammed's teachings, which says, the only solution for the black man in America is complete separation from the white man. Through the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm also felt that the white man has committed a huge sin against the black race of Africa during slavery, taking these tribal blacks away from their family, culture, and language, to work as slaves in a prejudiced, segregated, and oppressed America. This is shown in Malcolms autobiography as he quotes Elijah Muhammad

You are the planet Earths only group of people ignorant of yourself, ignorant of your own kind, of your true history, ignorant of your enemy! You know nothing at all but what your white slavemaster has chosen to tell you. And he has told you that which will benefit himself and his own kind. He has taught you, for his benefit, that you are a neutral, shiftless, helpless so-called ‘Negro.'

Malcolm believed that this sin was the mark of a devil and that the black man can never forgive it.

Malcolms pilgrimage to Mecca was a very important turning point in his life. Malcolms experiences in Germany and Arab allowed him to view whites and other races outside of America. Malcolm soon realized the difference between American society compared to other societies around the world. This aspect is shown as quoted from Malcolms autobiography, In Europe, wed walk in, any store, every store, and it would be Hello...Europeans act more human, or humane, whichever the right word is. As soon as Malcolm arrived in Frankford, Germany, he immediately noticed the hospitality of all people overseas, which he knew, failed to exist in America. Malcolm was shocked to see white people treating him like their own because he was so used to racism and segregation towards blacks in America. Below is a passage from Malcolms autobiography where he writes about his plane ride to Jetta

Packed in the plane were white, black, brown, red, and yellow people, blue eyes and blond hair, and my kinky red hair -- all together, brothers! All honoring the same God, all in turn giving equal honor to each other. 54

As Malcolms voyage continued, he started to realize how wrong he had been about his previous judgements and beliefs of the white race as a whole especially in America. Malcolm soon realized that his thoughts of the white man were primarily in response to 400 years of slavery and segregation in America and that the Muslim white men could not be held responsible for the sin of slavery that was committed in America. Malcolm explains this concept in the passage below

That is when I first began to reappraise the white man. It was when I first began to perceive that white man, as commonly used, means complexion only secondarily; primarily it described attitudes and actions. In America,white man meant specific attitudes and actions toward the black man, and toward all other non-white men. But in the Muslim world, I had seen that men with white complexions were more genuinely brotherly than anyone else had ever been. That morning was the start of a radical alteration in my whole outlook about white men.

In Arab, during Malcolms pilgrimage, he was awed and astonished when a Muslim white man named Abdel Azzam lodged Malcolm in his suite. Malcolm was so overwhelmed because he knew that this Muslim white man went out his way and was doing Malcolm a favor in spite of the fact that Malcolm was perceived as a white racist by the American press. Malcolm shows this as he writes, The white man...with nothing in the world to gain, had given up his suite to me, for my transient comfort. He had nothing to gain. He didnt need me. He had everything, In-fact he had more to loose than gain. He had followed the American press about me... I was a racist," I was anti white and he from all appearances was white." That experience forced Malcolm to reevaluate Elijah Muhammads white devil theory because Malcolm was taught that the white man was evil and that the white man could not perform good deeds to help blacks.

Everything about the pilgrimage accented the Oneness of Man Under God

The above quote was the theme of Malcolm's pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca. In Mecca, Malcolm witnessed and participated in the brotherhood of all men composed of all colors through the religion of Islam. In a question asking Malcolm what impressed him the most during his pilgrimage, he answered The brotherhood! The people of all races color, from all over the world coming together as one! It has proven to me the power of the One God. During the pilgrimage Malcolm went through all of the religious ceremonies and rituals alongside men of many races including white men. In Malcolms autobiography he explains this concept in more details

There were tens of thousands of pilgrims, from all over the world. They were of all colors, from blue-eyed blondes to black-skinned Africans. But we were all participating in the same ritual displaying a spirit of unity and brotherhood that my experiences in America handled me to believe never could exist between the white and the non-white.... During the past eleven days here in the Muslim world, I have eaten from the same plate, drunk from the same glass, and slept in the same bed (or on the same rug) -- while praying to the same God -- with fellow Muslims, whose eyes were the bluest of blue, whose hair was the blondest of blond, and whose skin was the whitest of white. And in the words and in the actions and in the deeds of the white Muslims, I felt the same sincerity that I felt among the black African Muslims of Nigeria, Sudan, and Ghana.

As Malcolm continued with his rituals during his Hajj in Mecca, he soon realized the problem of his previous ways of thinking about the race issues in American society. Malcolm identified the color-blindness of the Muslim worlds society and the color-blindness of the Muslims worlds human society, as a mode of influence in his previous ways thinking about the white man. All of these experiences combined to form Malcolm's new view of whites in America.

Each hour here in the Holy Land enables me to have greater spiritual insights into what is happening in America between black and white. The American Negro never can be blamed for his racial animosities -- he is only reacting to four hundred years of the conscious racism of the American whites. But as racism leads America up the suicide path I do believe, from the experiences that I have had with them, that the whites of the younger generation, in the colleges and universities, will see the handwriting on the wall and many of them will turn to the spiritual path of truth -- the only way left to America to ward off the disaster that racism inevitably must lead to . . . We were truly all the same (brothers) -- because their belief in one God had removed the white from their minds, the white from their behavior, and the white from their attitude. I could see from this, that perhaps if white Americans could accept the Oneness of God, then perhaps, too, they could accept in reality the Oneness of Man -- and cease to measure, and hinder, and harm others in terms of their differences in color.

In the past, yes, I have made sweeping indictments of all white people. I will never be guilty of that again -- as I know now that some white people are truly sincere, that some truly are capable of being brotherly toward a black man. The true Islam has shown me that a blanket indictment of all white people is as wrong as when whites make blanket indictments against blacks.

Taking into consideration, Malcolms previous experiences with the white man, it took a unique and powerful experience to change Malcolms views of whites as a whole. Before Mecca, Malcolm had a biased unequal view of the white man. Malcolm envisioned every white man as they appeared in America during and after slavery. Malcolm failed to realize the other Muslim whites throughout the word that worshiped and prayed to the same god as he did. Elijah Muhammad and his teachings of separation through Islam helped fuel Malcolm's misconception of the white man in America.

Malcolm's pilgrimage was the only force that could change his views of whites. Malcolm had been too involved and too persuaded by the teachings of Elijah Muhammad and too mesmerized by racism in America to just abandon his beliefs. Racism and segregation were proof of the "white devil" of America in Malcolm's eyes. Elijah Muhammad's solution to America's racial problem was a feasible one in Malcolm's eyes. This drew Malcolm more closer to the teachings of Elijah Muhammad and the religion of Islam.

In Mecca Malcolm was shocked to see the absence of racism and segregation by the white. Malcolm had became so accustomed to the serrated American society, that he found it hard to comprehend that people of different races could be brothers under the same religion. Malcolm soon realized that the answer to America's racial problem is not separation, but attachment and accepting the Oneness of God through Islam. Malcolm also believed that in Alla's eyes, there is no "white man" and everyone is all the same. When one is in his pilgrimage, the black and white label is removed from man. The pilgrimage is what helped Malcolm see this miscomprehension he had towards the white man. The misconception is that all white man are not "evil," but in-fact many white men throughout the world are brotherly with people of all races and share a common bond through the religion of Islam.

Books

Asante, Molefi Kete. Malcolm X As Cultural Hero And Other Afrocentric Essays. Africa World Press. Trenton, New Jersey, 1

Decardo, Luis A. On the Side of My People A Religious Life of Malcolm X. New York University Press, 16

Dyson, Michael Eric. Making Malcolm The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X. Oxford University Press New York, New York 15

Gallen, David. Malcolm A To X The Man and His Ideas. Caroll & Graft Publishers, Inc. New York, New York, 1

Goldwin, Peter. The Death and Life of Malcolm X. Chicago University of Illinois Press, 17

Malcolm X, with Alex Haley. The Autobiography f Malcolm X. New York Grove Press, 165

Perry, Bruce. Malcolm The Life of a Man Who Changed America. Sation Hill Press Inc., Barrytown, New York 11

Web Sites

http//www.brothermalcolm.net/mxcontent.html

http//www.colostate.edu/Orgs/MSA/docs/m_x.html

http//home.earthlink.net/~malx/malxintro.htm

http//www.geocities.com/Athens/Troy/05/frames.html

http//www.cmgww.com/historic/malcolm/

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LEGALIZE MARIJUANA!!!

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War Against Marijuana A total of ,470,545 Americans have been arrested for marijuana offenses. In 17 state and local law enforcement arrested 65,00 people for marijuana violations. That number is the highest ever recorded by the FBI. Of the 68,885 arrests made in 18, approximately 88% were for simple possession. The remaining 1% were for sale and manufacture. Every 5 seconds, a marijuana smoker is arrested in America. This is truly a waste of law enforcement and a waste of our tax money. These people getting arrested are generally responsible adults capable of making their own decisions.

Marijuana was made illegal in 17, but hemp was kept legal to use. Hemp provides from four to fourteen tons of dry fibers per acre per year. It can be made into paper, cloth, and cellulose for plastic. If drug laws would allow hemp farming, we'd have an alternative resource for paper, which would save our trees. When you look at the one-dollar bill, you are looking at a hemp farmer, George Washington grew hemp. The US Drug Enforcement Agency is ignorant to realize that there is a big difference between hemp and marijuana. Hemp can not be used to get high, and it never was used for that, but it still was put in the same category as heroin. Our tax dollars go to feed all the people that are held in prison on marijuana related charges. Those people are now struggling to feed their children, knowing that they won't get much help, because they are "criminals" according to a good percentage of society. Our society thinks marijuana isn't acceptable because it is illegal. Marijuana was made illegal because congress put up a fight, and went against narcotics. It was found a narcotic when it was classified along with opiates. It was deemed too dangerous to allow research, and dismissed all attempts to argue over it.

We know that the legal drug addictions present now, do not cause any crimes. The actions from them, but not the use. You can't baby all alcohol users, making sure they don't drink too much. You can't tell someone that they can't smoke marijuana, when their beliefs are otherwise. On June 1, 000, Val Walton a news staff writer for The Birmingham News reported that a 46 year old man could face life in prison after pleading guilty Tuesday to running a drug operation that sold thousands of pounds of marijuana. The man pleaded guilty to his charges of continuing a criminal enterprise and drug trafficking. Since this is a federal offense, he is not provided with parole as an option. He could face 0 years to life in prison. Now this man is not innocent, he was carrying an illegal firearm to engage in money laundering. His home was searched and authorities found at least 40 weapons, $0,000 worth of jewelry and more was found in a safety deposit box. This man should spend some time in prison for these offenses with no doubt. But the 0 years to life is for the marijuana, and the added 5-year sentence is for the weapons charge. This is just one of the thousands of cases, and not the usual, most are just for marijuana offenses.

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Marijuana is classified as a minor psychedelic drug. If it is used in large amounts, it could lead to a psychedelic effect. So can medication and alcohol, and it is okay to drink alcohol. This is not a new drug either; it dates back to 4,000 years ago in China. The emperor smoked it, and promoted its use for an all-purpose medication. It spread to India and other neighboring countries. Early Hindus used it for a variety of purposes as well. We have used it as a medical aid for thousands of years, and still are used for a variety of purposes, just not legally in most cases.

There are many myths about Pot used to discourage use. One is that Pot is nearly ten times more potent and dangerous than in the sixties. This is based on government data, and samples from the 70's recently compared to domesticated marijuana of today show that it's potency has increased moderately by a factor of two or so. The government ignores that it was available in premium varieties in the sixties, like Acapulco Gold, as well as hashish and hash oil, which is every bit as strong as today's marijuana. Another myth is that Pot kills brain cells. This myth came from animal experiments in which changes, not actual cell deaths were observed when animals were exposed to high doses of pot. There is no physical evidence that it causes permanent brain damage. User's should know that it does cause short-term memory loss has been found in chronic smokers, after about 6 to 1 weeks of abstinence. This is probably what makes people think it will damage you brain cells. Other drugs including alcohol have been noted to cause brain damage though. People try to say it will cause you to become sterile and lower testosterone in males. In contrast to alcohol use, there is more of a chance you will become impotent or have low testosterone levels from drinking alcohol. In females it has been shown that it may temporarily lower fertility or increase risk of fetal lost, even mildly disrupt ovulation. Again, if you drink alcohol the same risks are at stake, even worse ones.

Experts generally recommend that drugs not are used during pregnancy, but there is little evidence that marijuana use implicates fetal harm, unlike alcohol, cocaine, or tobacco. A variety of studies indicate that THC may exercise reversible immune-suppressive effects by causing the activity of the immune system cells to be inhibited. It is dubious whether they are of import to human health, since it is based mainly on theoretical laboratory animal studies. Chronic pot smokers have been shown to suffer damage to immune cells, the ones that are defense mechanisms. It is unclear how much damage is caused due to THC, as opposed to all the other toxins that occur in smoke. Water pipes and other devices can filter out many of those toxins. Many AIDS patients smoke marijuana to help stimulate appetite and reduce nausea. Cannabis doesn't actually damage T-cells, which are depleted in HIV patients. Some studies even found that exposure to marijuana increased T-cell counts in subjects who were not AIDS patients, but had a low T-cell count. Laboratory studies have suggested that high doses of THC might interfere with cell replication, Producing abnormal numbers of chromosomes. There is no evidence that it damages cells and chromosomes.

A review done by Dr. Leo Hollister from the Journal of Psychoactive Drugs said "The evidence on immune suppression has been contradictory and is more supportive of some degree of immune-suppression only when one considers in vitro studies. These have been seriously flawed by very high concentrations of drugs used to produce immune-suppression. The closer that experimental studies have been to actual clinical situations, the less compelling has been the evidence." Another popular myth is that one joint equal about 4 cigarettes. Critics have exaggerated the dangers if pot smoking. Dr. Tashkin found that daily pot smokers experienced a "mild but significant" increase in airflow resistance in large airways. This is greater than persons smoking 16 cigarettes per day are. What examiners ignore is that marijuana smokers did much are better than tobacco smokers in aspects of lung health. Dr. Tashkin himself says that the notion that one joint equal 16 or maybe just 4 cigarettes is not true. An estimate that marijuana smokers consume four times as much carcinogenic tar as cigarette smokers per weight smoked. The average joint usually contains 0.4 grams of pot, a bit less than one-half the weight of a cigarette. A joint is equal to two cigarettes, which isn't an exact equivalency, but is more accurate. Marijuana affects different parts of the respiratory tract than cigarettes; tobacco tends to penetrate smaller passageways of the lungs. One consequence of this is that pot, unlike cigarettes, does not appear to cause emphysema. Most experts agree that occasional or moderate use of marijuana is innocuous, they agree that excessive use can be harmful. Research shows that the two major risks are respiratory disease due to smoking, and accidental injuries due to impairment. A survey from the Kaiser Permanente Center found that daily marijuana-only users have a 1% higher rate of respiratory complaints than non-smokers do. Marijuana contains virtually the same toxic gases and tars as tobacco. The hazards of marijuana can be reduced by various strategies. One is to use higher-potency cannabis, which can be smoked in smaller quantities, use of water pipes and other smoke reduction technologies, and ingesting pot orally instead of smoking. People can use marijuana as a tea, or bake it into foods, but you must use about three times as much marijuana for the effect.

There is no scientific evidence that marijuana is a "gateway" drug. Cannabis is used by cultures in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Latin America shows no propensity for other drugs. The theory of marijuana leading to other drugs came from the sixties, when it became the leading recreational drug. Events in the eighties showed cocaine abuse exploded at the same time marijuana use declined. There is evidence that cannabis may be a substitute for other drugs such as alcohol and hard drugs. A survey by Dr. Patricia Morgan or the University of California at Berkeley, found a significant number of pot smokers and dealers switched to met amphetamine "ice", when Hawaii's marijuana eradication program created a shortage of pot. Marijuana doesn't lead to other drugs for the reason it is illegal, but because dealers are likely to deal other illicit drugs as well. Whatever the risks are when someone smokes pot, the laws make matters worse in several ways. Paraphernalia laws impede the development and marketing of water pipes, and all other advance technology that could reduce the harmfulness of marijuana smoke. Prohibition encourages sale of pot that has been contaminated or adulterated by insecticides, or mixed with other drugs such as PCP, crack, or heroin. By raising the price of marijuana, it makes in uneconomical to consume it orally, which is the best way to avoid the smoke exposure all together. When you eat it, it typically requires two or three more times as much marijuana as smoking.

There has never been a controlled scientific study showing that a drug urinalysis improves work place safety. The largest survey to date, covering 4,6 postal workers nationwide, found no difference in accident records between workers who tested positive. Random drug testing of transportation workers was enacted by a reaction to a single 187 train collision in which 16 Amtrak passengers were killed by a Conrail train that didn't stop. The engineer and brakeman of the Conrail train were found to have recently smoked marijuana, though it could not be proven that it caused the accident. The engineer had extensive record of speeding and DUI. He was known by management to have drinking problems. Congress mandated that random drug testing be done on the entire transportation industry. Marijuana is less of a road hazard than alcohol. Surveys have found that half or more of fatal drivers have alcohol in their blood, as opposed to 7-0% with THC, the major component of marijuana.

The combination of marijuana and alcohol is a hazard. Some research suggested that low doses of marijuana alone might sometimes improve driving performance, but not true in most cases. Marijuana appears to produce greater caution, because users are more aware of their state, so the become more alert. Even though this is true in some cases, no one should drive when they are high. It should be noted that these results might not apply to non-driving related situations, where forgetfulness or inattention can be less important than speed and safety in a vehicle. There has never been a single commercial passenger airline accident attributed to marijuana abuse. Drug tests on railroad workers found no elevated incidence of drug use among workers involved in accidents. In surveyed blood samples from 18 drivers killed in a car, truck and motorcycle accidents in seven states during 10-1 found that 51.5% of specimens as against 17.8% for all other drugs combined. Marijuana, the second most common drug, appeared in just 6.7% of accidents. Two-thirds of the marijuana using drivers also had alcohol. Drivers who use alcohol are especially vulnerable to fatal accidents when the are at the wheel. Marijuana alone had no indications to cause fatal accidents when not combined with other drugs. The Kaiser study also found that daily pot users have a 0% higher risk of injuries, mostly from accidents. These figures are pretty accurate, and not nearly as high as comparable risks for heavy drinkers or tobacco addicts.

Marijuana can cause accidents isn't surprising since it has been shown to degrade short-term memory in chronic pot smokers. It can also impair concentration, judgment, and coordination at complex tasks including driving. There have been numerous reports of pot-related accidents, some fatal; saying it is a myth that no one has ever died from marijuana. A survey of 1,0 emergency room trauma patients in Baltimore found that 4.7% were under the influence of marijuana, more than alcohol, but almost all were combinations with alcohol use and pot.

The Partnership for a Drug-free America did a survey among teenagers from 1-15 years old. Only eight percent believed that people who use marijuana are popular. From this study they found that fewer teens agree many rock and rap stars make drug use look tempting, but few believe it glamorizes drug use. Teens thinking that most people use marijuana at least once or twice, declined to 5 percent in 18 and 41 percent in 17. 11 percent of teens think it is difficult to say no to reject invitation to try marijuana. Statistically, drug use among teens has declined significantly. So why do we continue to say we have a marijuana problem, when indeed it has gotten much better? Teens are people too, which make decisions just like adults. There are more teenagers out there than we think that make smart choices and act responsibly. One would not condone a child to use marijuana; we don't allow them to use tobacco products and alcohol. This is a must in keeping them safe, because children are not mature enough to handle responsibility with drugs. That is where marijuana gets its bad reputation. Children who are involved with the drug are "curious" and want to try new things. Adults don't turn to crack when they are out of alcohol, so what makes us think that marijuana, a drug, would lead to the same thing?

Knowing the positive side is always nice, but to be logical, you need the negative side as well. The short-term effects of marijuana use include problems with memory and concentration, distorted perception (sight, sound, time, and touch) trouble with problem solving, loss of coordination, increased heart rate, and anxiety. These effects are even greater when other drugs are mixed with marijuana, but it has been proven that every persons body is different and some effects may appear and some may it depends on the person. Long-term effect is cancer, which is still in question and not known whether or not it can be caused by marijuana. To determine whether or not it leads to cancer is hard to find out because so many users smoke cigarettes too. Pot smokers suffer lung damage just like tobacco users, and reported evidence shows that pre-cancerous cells are found in pot smokers. Overall, people who smoke marijuana have the same effects with the respiratory system as tobacco smokers.

Unlike tobacco, marijuana is not addictive from chemicals, it is mostly psychological. When people smoke marijuana, they may get depression, fatigue, and carelessness with appearance, hostility, and deteriorating relationships with family and friends. This is not effects from all users, but for some it can lead to this. Smoking marijuana can also cause change in sleeping patterns.

When we realize the problems that occur from smoking marijuana, it is easier to argue the point of why it remains illegal in the United States. Nearly all the health risks can be compared to those risks with smoking tobacco. When a person smokes a cigarette, the body responds immediately to the chemical nicotine in smoke. Nicotine causes short-term increase in blood pressure, heart rate, and blood flow from the heart, and causes arteries to narrow. Carbon monoxide reduces amount of oxygen carried in the blood, which creates an imbalance in the demand for oxygen carried by cells. Smoking can cause chronic lung disease, coronary heart disease, and stroke, as well as cancer in various parts of the body. It is a known fact that smoking tobacco causes cancer, but marijuana is not known for sure to cause it. Women who use tobacco during pregnancy are more likely to have difficult birth, low birth weight, and risk of infant death. Nearly 00,000 infants suffer from lower respiratory tract infections, due to exposure to cigarette smoke. We all know that smoking is almost a definite "no" for pregnant women. You see the warnings on the side of every cigarette pack. Studies done to prove marijuana doesn't harm a fetus are criticized for obvious reasons. A woman named Nancy Day specializes in prenatal care. She did a study that was well controlled; finding that cannabis use had a positive impact on birth weight during the third trimester of pregnancy. Cannabis use is not recommended in pregnancy, it may be of medical value to some women in treating morning sickness or helping in childbirth.

Another drug that causes concern among many Americans, but remains legal is alcohol. Alcohol is absorbed in the stomach, enters the blood stream, and goes into all tissues. The effects from drinking are different depending on a person's size, weight, sex, as well as food and alcohol consumed. Effects from drinking can cause dizziness, nausea, thirst, slurred speech, disturbed sleep, and vomiting. Alcohol impairs judgment and coordination, causes aggressive acts like domestic violence and child abuse. Prolonged use of alcohol can also lead to addiction, producing withdrawal symptoms. Drinking can cause tremors, hallucinations and convulsions. Permanent damage to vital organs can occur in the brain and liver. Mothers who drink during pregnancy may give their infants fetal alcohol syndrome, causing mental retardation and other irreversible physical abnormalities. These drugs are legal for adults, but yet have caused a lot of damage to millions of Americans. Theses people are generally adults, that are suppose to be responsible. They aren't making wise choices when they abuse the drug, but the ones who are wise aren't effected. The same goes for marijuana. It is illegal to use because of the people who once abused it, which led to suspicion of it's use. The health dangers steaming from marijuana use are less or equal to smoking tobacco or drinking alcohol.

Everyone in this country is born with the right to make decisions. We all have choices, but how we make them is important. If we continue to doubt others, or even discriminate against them, we will always be in constant battle. The word "freedom" is suddenly followed by thousands of rules and exceptions. If we make things that can harm individuals illegal, is it really stopping it. Are we really thinking about what is out there now to legally screw up lives isn't doing the job already? Let it be our choice, let it be our right, make it legal to be free to make our own choices. If we could just take a moment to think about all the madness in our world, the freedom to smoke pot is just a tiny seed. That is what marijuana comes from, a seed. It is a natural plant, which somehow along the way got miss-understood.

Bibliography

Sources Partnership for a Drug-Free America, Surveys, Attitude tracking studies http//www.drugfreeamerica.org/newscenter/factsheets/pats.html The Birmingham News, Val Walton, News staff writer (June 1, 000) The Arizona Republic, "A losing Drug War", Pat Flannery and Dennis Wagner, (Sunday, June 4, 000) Washington Hemp Education Network (W.H.E.N) Compare legal drugs with illegal drugs "Prohibition Ensures Misuse" (November , 16) http//www.olywa.net/when/part14.html Donald Tashkin, Physician, New England Journal of Medicine "Is Frequent Marijuana Smoking Hazardous to Health" "Cannabis 177" Ann. Intern. Med. pg.5-4 (178) "Respiratory Status of Habitual Marijuana Smokers" pg.6-706 (Nov 180) Nicholas Cozzi, "Effects of Water Filtration on Marijuana Smoke A literature Review" Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies Newsletter, Vol. IV # (1) Survey on Hawaii's war on pot done by Honolulu Advertiser, April 1, 14 Found at http//www.norml.org/facts/myths/myth18.html Norman, Salyard and Mahoney "An Evaluation of Pre-employment Drug Testing" from Journal of Applied Psychology Pg.6- (10) Most facts were found at Http//www.norml.org What is Marijuana? http//www.teenchallenge.com Bureau of Justice Statistics, Special Report, Caroline Wolf Harlow, Ph.D. BJS Statistician (April 18) Office of National Drug Control Policy, Drug Policy Information Clearinghouse fact sheet Barry R. McCaffrey, Director http//www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov, or call, 1-800-666-, (March 000) Social Issues Resources Series "A Losing Battle" article found in Drugs-SIRS, West View Library, Clara Germany, staff writer of Christian Monitor (11)

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Examine the ways in which factors in pupils home background may affect their educational attainment

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Examine the ways in which factors in pupils home background may affect their educational attainment. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Examine the ways in which factors in pupils home background may affect their educational attainment paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Examine the ways in which factors in pupils home background may affect their educational attainment, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Examine the ways in which factors in pupils home background may affect their educational attainment paper at affordable prices with cheap essay writing service! It has been revealed that the higher the social class the higher the levels of educational achievement are. Supporting evidence has been found by Halsey, Heath and Ridge, Government figures, Smith and Noble and Bynner and Joshi.

Halsey et al. defined social class by the father's occupation. The conclusion of their study is that a service class boy (professional/manager etc.) is four times as likely to be in school at 16, eight times the chance at 17, ten times the chance at 18 and eleven times the chance of going to university compared to a working class boy (manual workers in industry and agriculture)

According to a government survey, The Labour Force Survey, 80% of those from professional backgrounds entered higher education at 18 or 1, compared to 14% of those from unskilled backgrounds.

Another government survey, General Household Survey, shows that 66% of professionals had degree-level qualifications compared to less than 1% of unskilled manual workers.

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Smith and Noble found the amount of pupils gaining five or more GCSE's at grade C or above had increased by approximately 50% in advantaged, medium and deprived areas. Although they have all increased, the gap between advantaged and deprived areas has too been increased. This is because a 50% rise of an already high figure is greater that a 50% rise of a lower figure.

Bynner and Joshi compared 11,000 people in Britain born in March 158 with ,000 born in April 170. They found that although a greater amount of people were achieving high educational qualifications in the second group the inequalities between the highest and lowest classes were as great as those in the first group.

These statistics show substantial evidence to support the fact that the higher your social class the higher your educational achievement will be. There are different interpretations for the reasons behind social class affecting educational attainment.

The first possible reason is that of class subcultures. Working-class students with the same measured IQ as their middle-class counterparts are less successful in the educational system. Because of this it has been suggested that class stratification is linked with educational achievement and in particular different social classes norms and values that influence the student's performance within the educational system.

Hyman suggested that it is the different norms and values produced by different social classes that effect student's educational achievement. Hyman suggests that working classes place a lower value on education; they do this because they believe that there is little room for personal achievement and therefore there is less emphasis placed on continuing school past the minimum leaving age. There is also little value placed on achieving a high occupational status. When evaluating jobs working classes emphasise ‘ stability, security and immediate economic benefits.' They tend to reject the risks and involvements in aiming for high-status occupations. Hyman suggested that the reason that a lower value is placed on education and high occupational status compared to the middle-classes is because working class members believe that there is little opportunity for personal advancement. Hyman concluded

"The lower-class individual doesn't want as much success, knows he couldn't get it even if he wanted to, and doesn't want what might help him get success"

Sugarman expands on Hyman's suggestion by saying that it is the parent's occupation that gives different norms and values to children. Sugarman suggests that the working class parent's occupations allow less room for promotion and their potential is reached quicker; the ladder they have to climb is shorter than middle class occupations. Because of the lack of need for improving yourself so that you can achieve more, working class parents attach less emphasis to personal gain and educational achievement. In opposition to these working class beliefs, the middle classes emphasise the importance of educational achievement and personal gain. This is because in their jobs there is always a promotion or a higher goal that they can aim for.

Sugarman goes on to say that there are four main beliefs that working classes have Sugarman suggests that these are the reasons why middle classes are disadvantaged in the educational system. They are

· Fatalism Acceptance of the situation. So children will be taught to accept how the educational system is and will not be encouraged to do better at school.

· Immediate Gratification Want satisfaction and enjoyment as quickly as possible. This means that working class parents will encourage their children to leave education as soon as possible so that they can gain immediate wage, rather than working longer to gain qualifications so that they can gain better wages.

· Present time orientation Focuses on now. Working classes emphasise the immediate benefits and denounce long-term benefits and goals. However it is these long-term goals that encourage people to stay in education. This will further reduce motivation for academic achievement.

· Collectivism Loyalty to the group. In schools the individual is influenced whilst at home a working class child will be socialised to believe that the group is more important. This causes conflict between beliefs and the educational system.

However Sugarman can be criticised on the basis of methodology. The values suggested by Sugarman about the working classes are observed. It therefore could be said that if the circumstances were different then the values portrayed could also be different. For example, working classes might be being realistic rather than fatalistic. They might postpone gratification if they had the resources available so that they could postpone it. They might be future oriented if the opportunities for successful future planning were accessible.

Using this point of view it could be said that working classes portray the same norms and values as any other members of society its just their circumstances that prevent them displaying them in the same way as middle class members.

Another criticism is that both Hyman and Sugarman's findings are based on questionnaires or interviews. Questionnaires and interviews may not provide accurate information on how they might react in other circumstances.

Finally, their studies can be criticised because similarities between social classes are often ignored and the differences emphasised by sociologists, this could be the same for Hyman and Sugarman.

The above criticisms can also be applied to Douglas' study. Douglas related educational attainment to a variety of factors, including the quality of the school, the size of the family and the student's health. The parent's interest in the child's education appeared to be the most important factor. He found that middle class parents expressed a higher amount of interest than working class parents. As the child grew older, parental interest and encouragement became more and more important. Douglas suggested that the higher the interest and encouragement the higher the educational attainment was. He suggested that norms and values are given to us during early socialisation. This means that infants have already got an understanding of norms and values before they reach secondary socialisation. Middle class children received more attention and stimulus from their parents compared to working class children. This means that from the start middle class children are achieving higher than working class children.

One criticism of Douglas' findings is that working class parents may not be less interested in their children's education just because they don't visit their child's school as often as their middle class counterparts. Working class parents might not have time to visit their child's school due to the demands of their job, working classes work longer, and less stable hours unlike their middle class counterparts who tend to work 5, Monday Friday.

Also the National Child Development Study found that 8% of middle class children attend a school with good parent/teacher relations compared to 75% of working class children. This means that working class parents may be put off visiting their child's school due to the way that teachers interact with them.

Another sociologist is Bernstein; he moves away form the idea that it is the norms and values of a social class that cause educational attainment differences. He argues that the difference is due to speech patterns. Bernstein suggests that the working classes use restricted codes whereas the middle classes use elaborated codes. Restricted codes are a kind of shorthand speech. Those who talk with restricted codes have so much in common that they have no need to make meanings explicit in their speech. Therefore restricted codes are perceived as inarticulate. Bernstein stated that restricted codes are characterised as ‘ short, grammatically simple, often unfinished sentences.'

In contrast to restricted codes, elaborated codes explicitly verbalize the meanings that are taken for granted in restricted codes. It fills in the detail, spells out the relationships, and provides the explanations that are left out by restricted codes.

In schools, Bernstein suggests that only elaborated codes are used, therefore leaving working class children disadvantaged.

Bernstein's idea of speech patterns can be criticised because Bernstein's class varies, at times he talks about the working class in general and at others he talks specifically about the lower working class. He lumps together all non-manual workers into a middle class whose members from top to bottom appear equally proficient in handling elaborated codes. Therefore he ignores possible variety within classes.

Bernstein is also criticised because he shows little evidence supporting the existence of elaborated and restricted codes.

Hyman, Sugarman, Douglas and Bernstein all support the idea of subcultural differences between social classes, which may be the cause for different educational attainment between social classes.

Another theory that attempts to identify the reason for different educational attainment between social classes is that of cultural deprivation. The theory of cultural deprivation is derived from the idea of standards deteriorating the lower down the class system you go. This theory states that the sub-culture of low-income groups is deprived or deficient in certain areas, this accounts for the low educational attainment of members of its group. Cultural deprivation places blame on the children, their family, their neighbourhood, and the subculture of their social group.

The culturally deprived child is not only poverty-stricken economically but culturally as well. They lack important skills, attitudes and values that are necessary for high educational attainment. The skills that culturally deprived children lack include linguistic deprivation, experiential, cognitive and personality deficiencies and a range of ‘substandard' attitudes, norms and values.

When the tripartite system was replaced by the comprehensive system it was generally believed that equality of opportunity would exist because access to all areas of education was freely available to everyone. However the emphasis has changed from equality of access to equality of educational attainment.

According from the cultural deprivation theory, equality of opportunity can only be reached if the education system took into account the deprivations and deficiencies of low-income groups.

The idea of positive discrimination arose from the above thinking. This is the idea that culturally deprived children must be given a helping hand to compete on equal terms with other children. This took the form of compensatory education additional educational provision for the culturally deprived.

Cultural deprivation theory has been attacked for acting as a smokescreen, which disguises the real factors that prevent equality of educational opportunity. By placing blame on the child and his or her background, it diverts attention from the deficiencies of the educational system.

Cultural deprivation theory can also be criticised for assuming or implying that higher-class cultures are superior to working-class cultures, and therefore placing the blame for the failure of their children in education on themselves.

Bourdieu's cultural capital theory is different to the cultural deprivation theory because it is strongly influenced by Marxism. Higher social class cultures are not assumed to be superior to working class cultures. Bourdieu argues that different education attainment between different social classes is the fault of the education system and not the working-class culture.

Bourdieu believes that the culture of the dominant class is reproduced through society as a whole. However there is no way of telling whether the dominant class culture is better or worse. Bourdieu refers to the dominant class culture as cultural capital. He does this because through the education system it can be translated into power and wealth. Cultural capital is not distributed evenly throughout the class structure, and this accounts largely for class differences in educational attainment. Students from an upper-class background have an automatic advantage because they have been socialized into the dominant culture.

Bourdieu's work on cultural capital was influential to Ball, Bowe and Gewirtz. Ball et al. suggest that middle-class parents are in a better position to assure that their children go to the school of their choice. The reasons for this are

· Middle-class parents possess cultural capital They are more likely than working class parents to have the knowledge or contacts to ‘play the system'. Middle class parents strategies include attempting to make and impression with the head teacher at open days; making a private appointment to meet the head teacher; knowing how to mount a successful appeal; and putting in multiple applications.

· Middle-class parents can manipulate the system they spend a lot of time and effort researching and visiting schools along with multiple applications and appealing. Middle-class parents have their stamina ‘sustained by knowledge, contacts, time and money' whereas working-class parents lack these assets.

· Material advantage Middle classes have material advantages over their working class counterparts as well. They are outlined by Ball et al. as

o Middle class parents can afford to pay for public transport that is needed so that they can send their children to more distant schools. They are also more likely to have cars so that they can take their children to school.

o They are more likely to be in the financial position to move house so that they live in the immediate catchment area of a successful school with a good reputation.

o They are much more likely to be able to afford extra help or tutoring for their child. They are also in a far better position to pay to have their child privately educated.

o Middle-class parents are in a better position to pay for childcare for younger children so that they are left available to take their older children to distant schools.

Ball et al.'s study illustrates how the cultural factors that Bourdieu identified can have an affect on class differences in education.

Boudon argues that inequality of educational opportunity is due to material inequality between social classes. Boudon uses the term position theory to explain the fact that even if there weren't any subcultural differences between social classes, the fact that people start in different positions in society will produce inequality of educational opportunity.

An example of this is that the costs of living for a working-class and an upper middle-class boy following the same educational course is very different, simply because their starting positions are different. If the upper middle-class boy chose a vocational course such as catering or building, his choice would probably lead to social demotion. The career that he would pursue is of a lower status than that of his father. However if the working-class boy chose a similar course, the course might lead to social promotion, it would be compared to the occupational status of his father. Therefore there is a greater pressure on the upper middle-class boy to select a higher-level educational course, if only to keep his present social position.

Boudon suggests that family and peer group solidarity is affected by course selection. If a working-class boy chooses to become a barrister and follows the required courses, this would tend to weaken both family and peer group solidarity. He would be continuing his education when most of his peers would be going to work, therefore he would be moving in different circles and living a different lifestyle. In contrast to this, if a upper middle-class boy chose the same path he would probably be aiming for a job at the same level at most of his peers. His family solidarity would be increased as well because his future occupation will be of a similar status to that of his fathers. Again, the position of both of those boys in their social class affects the boy's individual career path.

Cultural deprivation theory, cultural capital theory and Boudon's positional theory all attribute great emphasis on cultural factors. However another perspective is that material factors are the main influence in regards to the different educational attainment between different social classes.

Smith and Noble suggest that money is the main reason for the different educational attainment between social classes. They argue that lower classes may lack the money that is needed to provide their children with the educational opportunities that middle- and upper class parents provide.

Smith and Noble suggest that marketization increases polarization between successful, well-resourced schools in affluent areas and under-subscribed, poorly resourced schools in poor areas. Marketization is control by market forces. An example as to why this is important is that if a book is vital for a course but its expensive only those who can afford it will be able to use it, therefore limiting the available knowledge. This is only a little example but if multiple books are needed for many courses, the expense builds up and it may be difficult for lower social classes to be able to pay for the books, and because of this the individual is unlikely to choose the course. Therefore marketization increases the educational attainment differences between social classes.

Smith and Noble point out that there are also hidden costs. These include school clothing, meals, transport to and from school and sometimes equipment, materials and school trips. There are previsions to help supply these to children but there have been cut backs. Poor children are entitled to grants but they are not compulsory. This might affect the child's education because they would have to make do with second-rate material and not go on school trips. This therefore means that their educational experience wont be as rich as those who come from higher class backgrounds who can afford new equipment and can afford to go on school trips.

In conclusion, I think that subcultural, cultural and material factors all affect the different educational attainment found between different social classes. Halsey et al. found supporting evidence, they argued that parent's attitudes to education and the level of the parent's education (family climate) affected the child when deciding what type of secondary school the child should attend. However once the child was at school family climate didn't affect the child's progress very much. Also they found that material circumstances affected how long the child stayed in school. Material disadvantage was more important than family climate when making this decision.

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Claire Denis's maiden film Chocolat opens on a wide gray slice of sea and sky. Two silhouettes distantly at play in the surf do little to relieve the visual anomie. The camera curves slowly rightward, away from drear emptiness toward green-fringed shore, to stop at a young white woman, watching. Cut to closeup a child lazes on his back in the sand, a transparent skin of seawater rising to caress, then slide away from his rich brown flesh. Soon a grown man lies down beside him, and together their bodies form a dark continent that fills Denis's frame, anchoring our (and the observing woman's) gaze. In effortless, elegant cinematic diction, Denis makes us experience how, for this as-yet-unidentified voyeur, people of colorcolor itselfsignal harbor, a homeport that draws her in from those washed-out, undemarcated spaces at the horizon, back into childhood memory of a perfect life in French-governed West Africa during the 150's.

Chocolat's vehicle for time-travel is in the present, a young woman lacking in substance, a bit distracted and adrift as if she's misplaced her life's Baedeker. Clutching her father's old sketchbook of African scenes like a compass that has ceased to point true north, the adult France (Mireille Perrier) trips into the past, where she seems at first only audience to a quiet playing-out of paradise lost. The little girl France (Ccile Ducasse) first learns and is exiled from the color of home in the last house on earth, as the previous colonialistsdefeated Germans who now lie in a nearby graveyarddubbed the sprawling bungalow that stands so solitarily in the Cameroons flatlands. But Chocolat ('88), like Denis's No Fear, No Die (S'en fout la mort) ('0; U.S. '), ultimately shapes itself into a potent morality play that climaxes with the rupture of uniquely symbiotic relationshipsbetween France and the black houseboy Prote (Isaach de Bankol) in the first film, between money-minder Dah (Bankol) and Jocelyn the cockfighter (Alex Descas) in the secondpropelling the witness into motion, out on the road as a lost or found soul.

Chocolat is all devouring space, sunbaked, scrubby expanses that eat away at the substantiality of figures in the landscape, and at the forms on which whites depend for emotional and social orientation. Visually, Prote stands out, solidly inhabiting his strong, dark body, filling out his flesh with no slack. The whites seem less at home in their skins, fallen away from or unsure of their true shapes, and thus more reliant on layers that signal identity. Luc (Jean-Claude Adelin), the ex-seminarian who infects France's Eden, reads an account of the violent vertigo experienced by those cast back into enclaves of whites after having lived among blacks for a long time The white skin color evokes something akin to death.

For Aime, France's mother (Giulia Boschi), Prote becomes a kind of axis around which she orbits, though the motion is always masked by the protocols of châtelaine and houseboy. In the willed silences and the kind of sexual suspension maintained between them, Aime and Prote guard a necessary order and equilibrium. That balance eventually collapses, done in by a fallen priest's killing honesty. By naming out loud the existential dynamics of color and by making himself at home in spaces reserved for members of each race, Luc uncontains the players and their stage, so that they become vulnerable to an African landscape, i.e., state of mind, that leaches them of vitality and any sense of direction. Aime crouches in the darkness, reaching out to grasp Prote's ankle as he closes the shutters on African nightas though she might fall off the world without the lifeline of his flesh. But that connection would hamstring the black man, and he rejects it.

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