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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in trytr, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your trytr paper at affordable prices with cheap essay writing service! Anatomy & Physiology 1 04/10/0

Body regions

Head

Neck

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Trunk

Chest

Abdomen

Pelvis

Extremities

Each region has a bony skeleton attached. Which will have muscle attachment, which permits movement.

Body cavities

1. Dorsal cavity-

Framework Cranium, vertebrae

Contents brain, spinal cord

. Thoracic cavity-

Framework ribs, sternum, thoracic vertebrae, diaphragm

Contents heart, lungs, pleura, thymus, esophagus, trachea, bronchi, major vesicles

. Abdominal cavity-

Framework diaphragm, lumbar vertebrae, abdominal muscle.

Contents stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, spleen, aorta, venacavias

4. Pelvic cavity- framework pelvic bones, sacrum, and abdominal muscles. Contents Kidneys, bladder, ovaries, uterus, vagina, testicles not dropped, colon, rectum, anus

Structural units of the body

Cell the smallest functional unit of the body

Tissue - Collection of cells having similar functions and structure

Organ - Collection of tissues having similar functions and structure

Systems- group of organs having similar functions and structure

Organism collection of systems, which work together to sustain the independent functioning of the total individual

About the cell

Protoplasum- living substance within the cell. Can be organic or inorganic

Organic materials- chemicals made of carbon. Example protein, fats, carbohydrates

Inorganic materials- chemicals other than carbon. Example water, salts, gases

Electrolytes- salt compounds

Ion's- electrolytes that have been separated in a solution. Carry an electrical charge

Nucleus- control center of the cell. Contains chromosomes

Chromosomes- Made of DNA. Contains the hereditary traits

Nucleolus- pacemaker of the cell

Cytoplasm - contests of the cell other than the nucleolus. Manufactures RNA and other proteins

Organelle- small structures in the cytoplasm that carries on a specific function

Types of Mitochondria powerhouse Produces energy and ATP

Endoplasmic reticulum- produces and transports RNA and sterile hormone Ribosomes- produces RNA and other proteins

Golgi apparatus- manufactures glandurol secretions

Centrioles- per cell. Located near the nucleus and active during cell division

Enclusion bodies

Lysosomes- granules containing digestive enzymes

Pigments- melanin (black), hemoglobin (red), bill Rubin (yellow)

Glycogen- starch molicus. Found in liver and muscle cells

Lipids- fat globules

Mucus- sticky substance, protects the passages of the body that open to the outside

Cell membrane Also called plasma membrane. Its function is selective permeability (only allow certain things in the cell and out of the cell) composed of organic molecules that constantly change shape and chemically interact with other molecules.

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Cellular Physiology methods of moving substances through the cell membrane

Diffusion- movement of a substance through the cell membrane in either direction depending on the concentration of that substance on each side of the membrane. The movement occurs from the side of higher concentration towards the side of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached. Example oxygen, carbon dioxide

Osmosis- (selective diffusion) solution involved is water. The salute involved is glucose or salts. Allows movement from a region of low salute to a region of high salute through a membrane. Permeable only to water.

Osmotic pressure will result from a difference in concentration on either side of the membrane.

Isotonic equal osmotic pressure

Hypertonic- intercellular pressure (outside cell) is greater than intracellular. CELL WILL SHRINK AND DRAW FLUID OUT.

Hypotonic- Intracellular pressure is greater than intercellular. CELL WILL SWELL AND BURST

Active transport- substances are moved through a membrane from a low concentration to a high concentration. Requires energy to perform the process. Example electrolytes balances

Filtration- processes that pushes water and substances from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure through a membrane. Responsible for the fluid between the cells. Blood pressure causes this process. How the kidney works

Sodium (NA++) and potassium(K) pump- movement of sodium and potassium enzymes from a low concentration to a high concentration. This requires energy. VERY IMPORTANT in maintaining osmotic pressure.

Bulk transport-

Phagocytosis. Cell membrane surrounds an external particle and encloses it within a vacuole and the enzymes from the lysosomes digest it.

Pinalcytosis- similar to phagocytosis except it intakes liquids. Cellular physiology

Tissues

Epithelial-

Char 1) covers all body surfaces

) mostly cellular

) lacks blood vessels

4) protects underlined structures

5) has cells capable of secretions group of these cells are call GLANDS

6) sensitive to sensory stimulation

7) some of the cells are ciliated.

Types 1) Simple squamos- single layer thick, lines internal organs, secretes a cerus fluid and facilitates diffusion and filtration.

) Simple cuboidal - cube shaped, single layer thick. Secretes hormones and is found in the thyroid and ovaries

) Simple columnar- single layer of tall cells, contain goblet cells, which secretes mucus. Found in the lining of the small intestines. Func is absorption and secretion

4) Pseudostratified columnar- hair growing from the cells. Has goblet cells. Found in the nose, trachea, and bronchi. Simulation of the cilia causes coughing and sneezing

5) Stratified squamas- most common type. Several layers of epithelial cells. Can be karentinised or non-karentinised this forms a waterproof protective covering. Found in the epidermis and the interlining of the mouth

6) Stratified columnar several layers of tall cells. Found in the respitory system and the male reproductive system

7) Transitional comes from the bladder. Can change shape when pulled or stretched

Connective tissue (CT)-

Char 1) found throughout body

) gives body support as a whole.

) Connects two organs together.

4) Secretes a matrix which is an intercellular substance that fills the spaces between the cells.

5) Encapleates certain organs (kidneys)

6) Has a rich supply of blood vessels.

7) It protects delicate organs with fatty deposits

8) It's a storehouse for fats.

Types 1) Adipose - fat cells under skin and around body organs, Func reserve food supply, insulation, and shock absorption.

) Areolar found in subcutaneous tissues, it contains fibrasites which secretes collagen, macrophases which carry out phagocytosis, massed cells which contains histamine causing flamatory process, heparin and plasma cells, the plasma cells contain antibodies.

) White fibers - tendons and ligaments which contains collagen

4) Yellow fibers - elastic fibers found in subcutaneous tissue and gives elasticity to the body.

5) Hyaline Cartilage hard and smooth, made of collagen. It covers joint surfaces and gives firm but flexible support

6) Fibrous cartilage flexible and moveable it is found in the nose, ears, trachea and intervertrable disks

7) Blood- aka wandering connective tissue, cells floating matrix. Made in the bone marrow and it distributes nutrients throughout body.

8)Bone it is made of ostiocytes (bone cells) which secretes a fibrous matrix where the salts of calcium, phosphorous and magnesium are stored. This is what makes the bone hard. Bones provide support and protection for the body.

Char

compact bone- it is very hard, found in shaft of long bones and the outer covering of other bones and it secretes a matrix of concentric circles (rings in a tree)

spongy bone- aka cancelous bone, it contains spaciules which are needle shaped bone fragments and trabeculae which is fibrous cords of ct. This forms a mesh work of bone that fills the ends of long bones and the interior of flat and irregular bones, this keeps the bones lightweight and strong. It is arranged to absorb shock and stress(webbing)

Periosteum- a fiborous membrane covering outer surface of the bones, it secretes ostioblasts during fracture repair and can increase or decrease in size depending on the activity of the individual.

Epiphysis- growth center of bone. It is found on the ends of long bones and in the center of other bones.

Medulary cavity red marrow, makes red blood cells granulocytes (group of white blood cells) and platelets(clotting cells) This is found in all bones until maturity and after maturity only on flat irregular bones(ribs) Yellow marrow, this replaces red marrow in long bones. It is composed of ataposed tissue and is a reserve source of energy.

Articular cartilage- made of hyaline cartilage and covers ends of long bones to reduce friction.

Types of bones

1) long bones found in extremities.

) short bones( carpals and tarsals)

) irregular bones(vertebrae)

4) 4 flat bones (ribs, sternum, scapula, skull, pelvis)

Fracture Repair (Osteogenisous)

Stage 1 = Procallus where hemorrhaging leads to a clot.

Stage = Callus- granulation tissue forms between the pieces of the bone.

Stage = bony callus- periosteum secretes ostoblasts into the callus and secretes a matrix. OSSIFICATION is formed, which is minerals within the matrix that causes bone to harden. Osteoclasts are secreted to reshape the jagged edges of the damaged bone (bone sculpture cells).

Stage 4 = facture healed

Nervous

Char

1) Coordination center of the body

) Stimulus can only travel in one direction along a nerve

) Nerve fibers join together at a synapse(space)

4) Control center(brain and spinal cord) that is nervous tissue

Muscle

Char

1) Contracts when stimulated. Func enables movement

) Maintains posture against gravity

) Helps vital body functions (example digestion, heartbeat, and breathing)

Types

1) Skeletal- striated, voluntary controlled, some reflex action, muscles connect to bone by tendons and the attachment crosses for a joint

) Smooth muscle- nonstriated, involuntary controlled, controlled by the ANS(autonomic nervous system), found in digestive organs

) Cardiac tissue- striated, involuntary controlled, fibers are interconnected, when one fiber contracts the contraction is spread to all other fibers. Found only in the heart

04/11/0

Blood- (wandering ct)

Char

Blood volume

1) Vary according to species, body weight and age

) Maintains the PH of the body within normal ranges, (normal PH of blood = 7.5- 7.45) ) Acts as a transportation system for food, oxygen(O), carbon dioxide (C0), waste products, heat, hormones, enzymes.

4) Protects the body against antigens(anything foreign to the body) does this by carrying antibodies.

Parts of blood

Plasma- liquid portion of the blood that contains clotting factors. Makes up 55% 65% of the total blood volume. 0% is water, 10% is proteins, nutrients, electrolytes, gases, hormones and enzymes.

Types of protein in plasma

Fibrinogen- made by the liver, requires vitamin K and functions in the clotting process.

Prothrombin- made by the liver, requires vitamin K and functions in the clotting process

Albumin- most prevalent draws fluid from the tissues into the vessels

Globulin- forms, alpha and beta transports fats and fat soluble vitamins, Gamma- functions as antibodies of immunity (all of these are made from plasma cells, made in the spleen and lymph notes

Serum liquid portion of the blood(doesn't have clotting factors), draw blood allow blood to clot spine down and liquid portion of the mixture is cerium.

Cells 5% - 45% of the total blood volume.

Char

1) # from 5 7 million per cubic mm

) Size vary with species and measures in micro's and diameters

) Shape(biconcave disk) does not have a nucleus except birds, reptiles and fish

4) HGB (hemoglobin) contains within the red blood cell. Gives the red blood cell it's color. Loves o. enjoys carbon monoxide more(co),

5) Made in the bone marrow, made in all bones before maturity and only in flat and irregular bones after maturity

6) Function carries oxygen from the lungs to all body parts, carries carbon dioxide from the body to the lungs

7) Life span 4 months. The spleen will fragment the old cells and save the hemoglobin for the new cells

8)Anemia causes. To little hemoglobin, to few cells (mainly animals)

Types RBC (red blood cells, aka Erythrocytes)

WBC (White blood cells)

Leukocytes

1) 5,000 10,000 cubic mm but can go as high as 15,000 if the animal is stressed or excited during blood draw.

) Contain a nucleus

) Larger than red blood cells

4) Their spirifical in shape

5)func some produce and carry antibodies, some carry out phagocytosis, some crawl through capillary walls into tissue spaces ( called diaheapedecyst)

Types of white cells

Granularcytes- formed in the bone marrow, cytoplasm contains granuals, nuclear segments as cell ages, life span appx. 1 hours. Twice the size of a red blood cell

A. Neutrophils most numerous, they number from 60% - 70%, they stay in blood appx. 10 hours, they increase with bacterial infections, attracted to the site of infection by chemotaxois, travel through dyopedicyst, they care out phagocytosis, decrease with viral infections

B. Eosinophils- number from 1% - %, increase with allergic responses and parasitic infections

C. Basophils- number from ½ to 1%, they are occasionally seen with allergies, they secrete heparin which helps prevent blood clotting, secrete histamine which increases blood flow to the tissues

Agranularcytes (nongranularcytes)- formed in the bone marrow and the organ of the lymphatic system. The cytoplasm does not contain granules.

A. Lymphocytes- smallest white blood cell, they will number from 5% 5%, they increase to the response of viral infections, they carry antibodies on the surface of the cell membrane, the cytoplasm shrinks with age making the cell become mostly nucleus, life span may expand for many years.

B. Monocytes- number from % 8%, nucleus and cytoplasm contain vacuals, they will increase with chronic infections, they undergo dyopedicyst and phagocytosis, they circulate in the blood appx. 4 hours, live span several weeks to months

Platelets (thrombocytes) no complete cells, come from a giant cell called MEGAKARYOCYTES, made in the bone marrow, MEGAKARYOCYTES releases cytoplasmic fragments and as the fragments detach an intercirculation the smaller fragments become platelets and as they pass through the vessels of the lungs the larger fragments break down to produce more platelets.

Clotting mechanism Always found in the blood

• Platelets break apart due to rough edges in vessel

• Releasing platelet factors

• Prothrombin --) Ca+ @ platelet factors --) thrombin

• Fibrinogen --) thrombin --) fibrin (clot)

Stationary blood clot = Thrombus

Moving blood clot = embolus

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Membranes

Char

Combination of or more tissues

Covers and lines body cavities

Divides organs into sections

Types

Serous- secretes a thin watery fluid, reduces friction between the organs, joints and enclosed cavities.

Synovial- thick fluid in the joint spaces, reduces friction

Fascia- does not secrete, supports and retains structures and surrounds muscle bundles

Sclera- outer white layer of the eyeball and protects the deeper structures of the eye

Dermaoter- outer covering of the brain and spinal cord, protects the delicate nervous tissue below

Integumentary system (skin)

Structures

Epidermis- outer layer of epidermis is dead keratinized cells,

Germinal layer- area under the outer layer, living cells that undergo mitosis, replaces the cells that are continuously lost in the outer layer

Pigment color

Dermis- composed of a fibroelastic CT, considered the true skin, firmly connected to the epidermis and loosely connected to the subcutaneous tissues below, good capillary blood supply

Papilary layer- below the germinal layer, origin of ridges and valleys (example fingerprints)

Reticulary layer below the papillary layer, made of dense CT and elastic fibers, makes the skin stretch, contains nerve endings

Subcutis- composed of adiposed and lose CT, loosely attaches to the skin and underline tissues and structures, adiposed is good insulation

Glands of the skin-

Sudoriferous (sweat glands) - secretes a watery fluid, contains salts and waste products of metabolism, cools the skin by evaporation, found in pads of feet on dogs and cats,

Sebaceous gland (oil glands) open into the hair follicles, secretions lubricate the hair and skin, secretion is called SEBUM, if accumulates will cause blackheads or cyst

Anal sacks (scent glands) () located at 400 and 800 around the anus, secretion has a strong odor,

Tarsal gland secretes and oily secretion along the edge of the eyelid, prevents tear secretions from overflowing the eyelids

Ceruminous gland- found in the ear canal, secretes and waxy material

Projections from the skin (claws, hoofs, fingernails)

Germinal layer - located and the root of claw or nail, has good supply and contains nerve endings

Hair follicle originates in the dermis, consists of a bulb(root) and shaft, bulb is buried deep into the hair follicle, each follicle has a tiny muscle attached,

Arrector pili - muscle controlled by the sympathetic nerves, contraction of this muscle causes hair to stand up

Alopecia (hair loss)

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Green Saint or Eco-sinner. a crical analysis of ecotourism

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GREEN SAINT OR ECO-SINNER? A CRITCAL ANALYSIS OF ECOTOURISM.

There exists a global struggle. Growing numbers of citizens organisations and movements in both the South and the North are fighting against the current system of globalisation, a system which they claim serves to strengthen the power of big corporations whilst obstructing efforts to create a socially just and ecologically sustainable world. The corporate tourism industry, along with television is one of the most potent agents of this globalisation and has been labelled "one of the most powerful driving forces towards progressive liberalization of the global economy that creates far more winners than losers." Clear evidence exists that tourism is considerably contributing to the deepening crisis of poverty and debt, environmental degradation as well as human rights abuses. However, according to its commercial practitioners, ecotourism is the antidote to the aforementioned ills that mass tourism creates. Ecotour operators work with local people to conserve fragile ecosystems, support endangered species and habitats, preserve indigenous cultures and develop sustainable local economies. It is the purpose of this study to critically analyse this ecotourism, asking questions like, for example; whether it can successfully be used as a tool for conservation and sustainable development? In addition, what are the effects on these targeted areas and moreover, whose interests does ecotourism actually serve? Is just another ‘greenwash' by big business in an unfair international system? It is important to note that these issues are interlinked and tend to overlap.

The first point at which ecotourism can be criticised arrives when simply trying to define it. In its simplest form, ecotourism is nature travel. In its more advanced form, ecotourism encompasses all aspects of life wildlife, plants, biodiversity, sustainable economies, conservation, heritage etc… So at it's purest, ecotourism is a kinder, more gentle form of environmentalism that recognises humans as part of the ecosystem. This is a critical difference; it affects how tour operators, conservationalists and tourists interact with the host destination and also illustrates the problem that throughout the industry there remains no agreed upon definition, nor international standards that tourists and operators must follow. This, as will be highlighted later, leaves much room for greenwash, spin and exploitation for the sake of profit. In theory, ecotourism could be defined as "an enlightening nature travel experience that contributes to conservation of the ecosystem, whilst respecting the integrity of host communities." However, in practice, a more truthful definition could describe ecotourism as "an economic process where rare and beautiful ecosystems are marketed internationally to attract tourists."

Fundamentally then, we can see that two views prevail. One sees that public interest in the environment can be used to market a product, whilst the other suggests that this same interest may be used to conserve the resources upon which this product is based. In order for an ecotour to be a success it needs an effective integration of both views, so that both the industry and the resource can be sustained over the long term. This is a key issue in analysing ecotourism. The question must be posed, ‘can ecotourism be successfully used as a tool for sustainable development?'

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Sustainable development according to the Brundtland commission report is "development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet there own needs." According to Pamela Wight ecotourism can be sustainable as long as it accepts some key principles

• It should not degrade the resource and should be developed in an environmentally sound manner.

• It should involve education among all parties local communities, government, NGOs, industry and tourists (before, during and after the trip)

• It promote understanding and should involve partnerships between many players (including those stated above)

• It should provide long term benefits to the resource, to the local community, and to the industry. (scientific, cultural, social and economic)

So, are there any examples of such criteria being met? Erlet Cater and Gwen Lowman provide instances of such success, as in Zimbabwe the Nyaminyami wildlife park generated a 450 per cent increase in revenue earned from the introduction of sustainable wildlife activities. $500 000 was distributed to local villages with nearly all funds being invested in community projects which included the provision of a reliable water supply and the establishment of grinding mills. It is true that the major role players in tourism all have a stake in sustainable tourism and that their future interests are dependent on sound environmental practice. However, the same two authors also offer the analysis that "given the multitude of interests involved, a completely sustainable outcome is more likely to remain more of an ideal than a reality." There are hardly ever any ‘win-win' scenarios where positive links between the environment and development equate to conservation and income growth. (See Appendix i )

Conversely, the champions of ecotourism claim such successes to be frequent. 00 was designated the International Year of Ecotourism (IYE) by the UN and was aggressively marketed as a celebration of ecotourism's role in facilitating sustainable development. Yet many critics saw this celebratory tone as inappropriate due to the growing evidence of failed projects and disturbed communities and ecosystems. Even the World Bank, which has been promoting ecotourism development for about a decade, has published studies that suggest few if any ecotourism projects have actually generated substantial income for the parks they are intended to protect, much less the people living near them. In addition, tourism marketing men claim that ecotourism leads to a greater distribution of wealth and an increase in living standards when there is local community involvement. However, Mexican economist David Barkin counters this by stating, that even when not run by outsiders, the economic benefits of ecotourism can be limited. He argues that local elites are usually in the best economic and political position to benefit by development and moreover, he suggests that these projects do not support the broader regeneration of community based economies and self sufficiency, which are key factors for local sustainability. This directly goes against the criteria offered above by Pamela Wight. Worryingly, Barkin points to the fact that if local needs are not met or continue to be defined elsewhere, ecotourism projects can undermine local economic security, social relations and ecosystems. The reality of this has become apparent, as destination communities have suffered due to the drop in bookings post September 11th.

Despite this, promoters of the IYE such as the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) still assert that ecotourism can help eradicate poverty in the global south. However, as Anita Pleumarom of the Tourism Investigation and Monitoring Team suggests, the global south provides an experimental laboratory and self-serving target of investment for the development, NGO, and corporate interests driving the aid agenda. She argues that communities are deliberately not given enough information enabling it difficult for them to make informed decisions and commitments. The IYE did promise the distribution of ‘Ecotourism Information Kits', but as Deborah McLaren of the Rethinking Tourism Project states, such kits "promote a reductionistic approach…and they also promote the homogenisation of tourism experiences, as opposed to encouraging communities to engage actively with tourists on their own terms and in ways that bring tourists and locals to new understandings." So again, Pamela Wight' s check list would concur that sustainability is not being promoted, this time due to a lack of education and understanding between parties.

Amongst the negatives however, there do exist some positives. Robert G.Healy argues that through tourist merchandise, opportunities are offered to even the poorest participant in the local economy as they don't need immense capital to produce. Furthermore, rural societies have been successfully selling traditional products, modified products and entirely new ones altogether. Through this process, local craft traditions have been revitalised and in some areas new ones have been created reinforcing local identities. Healy states that tourist merchandise "offers the possibility of using local materials sustainably and even provides a new market for the output of local agriculture and forestry enterprises, specifically targeted towards resource protection." The potential then again exists for a ‘win-win' scenario, but in reality other factors can complicate the situation making it a ‘lose-win' with the environment suffering. This can happen due to a depletion of natural resources as inputs for such merchandise and furthermore, social tensions can be created when some members of the community benefit more than others from sales.(See Appendix i )

So in terms of sustainable development it is clear that there is clear potential for ecotourism to play a beneficial role, yet in the long term it seems as though all it is achieving is at a detrimental cost. The same can be said to be true for ecotourism's role in the conservation and the protection of the areas, environments and the indigenous peoples it targets. The uneven ecotourism development which takes place can be reflected directly in ecological degradation. Take for example the Monarch Butterfly Reserve in Michoacan, Mexico. Here, impoverished peasants continue to violate the reserve's ban on logging. This happens even though these peasants are aware of the importance of forest conservation. Why? It is because ecotourism development has failed to offer any meaningful economic opportunities or self sufficiency for the majority of people living there. Furthermore, when these lands are targeted for tourism, conditions can quickly undermine indigenous peoples' land claims and control over what and who comes out of these landscapes.

It would be false to suggest that the money generated by ecotourism projects has not been welcomed by indigenous communities, but on the whole, projects have tended to backfire, causing divisions or not generating the incomes they expected. What's more, ecotourism brings with it pressures to convert nature into exploitable resources, for example through the conversion of sacred sites into tourists attractions. This is a problem facing the Maasai in the Lolita Hills in Kenya who are being pressured to give up a sacred forest of biodiversity (Naimina-Enkiyio) in which they practice worship. In some cases, where this pressure has been combated there has been complaints of subterfuge. Commercially motivated bioprospectors have pretended to be ecotourists in order to sidestep local regulations and laws. As well as flora, wildlife is another factor that can be adversely affected by the incoming tourists. Ronda Green, an ecotour operator herself points to the obvious dangers of hand feeding and spotlighting and also suggests that through the arrival of humans, many species that we are unable to detect (such as Numbats) are forced to change their habitual regimes causing a disturbance to the ecosystem. She states, "We make promises for accreditation that we will not do activities that will unduly disturb wildlife, but these do not always translate easily into actual distances for each species, or indications that an animal is being affected."

Perhaps most often overlooked is the inescapable fact that an Eco-tourist is no different than any other tourist in that they consume non-renewable resources to arrive at their destinations. It could even be argued they do more damage, since the areas they visit are often the most remote and pristine. However, the link between jetting across the world, the contribution of jet travel to greenhouse gas concentrations, and the ecotourist experience are rarely made. As Susan Becken reports, the Ecotourism Summit (one of the main events in the IYE) was described by the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) as a huge success, involving delegates from 1 different countries. She then argues that the energy demand of the delegates' long distance travel to Quebec was obviously not taken into account. Therefore, this Summit was another example of good intentions resulting in negative environmental impacts. Becken remarkably highlights that the energy use of almost 0 terajoules (TJ) for air travel to the Summit could sustain 05 Nepali citizens, 4 World citizens or 0 Canadians! (See Appendix ii) Ecotourism has in fact been dubbed ‘Egotourism' by Ian Munt, who asserts that ecotourism is as much about confirming one's class identity, educational sophistication, disposable income and cultural capital as it is about visiting nature in far away places.

This ties in nicely to the next way in which ecotourism can be critically analysed by asking the question ‘Whose interests does it really serve?' There is a growing belief by critics that large nature conservation and ecotourism groups have colluded to lobby for the UN endorsement of ecotourism and now want to exploit it for self serving purposes. Benefits open to them could include; free promotion for their products and technical consulting services, or getting funding for their own projects. Anita Pleumarom again provides a useful insight when she states that for grass roots groups it is alarming that the organisations which are mandated to represent the concerns of the NGOs and Communities in the South targeted for development, such as TIES (The International Ecotourism Society), are in fact based in the North. A statement presented at the Convention of Biological Diversity in Nairobi, May 000, displays evidence of such anxiety, "large conservation and development organisations do not respect local people's rights.. several activities undertaken by the Ecotourism society do not respect the interests of indigenous peoples…and often threaten cultural and biological diversity"

More importantly, there is the question of whether these targeted peoples can actually say no to ecotourism. Debt-ridden Southern governments face huge pressures to generate foreign exchange for debt repayment purposes. Couple this with the already mentioned fact that national elites stand to gain economically from tourism development and it is clear that these governments are not in the best position to reject such projects, despite their obvious pit-falls. The ‘option' to choose is rare as the pattern and organisation of international tourism often results in a loss of sovereignty of these destination countries in terms of decision making. This situation is made worse by the fact that there is enthusiastic support and promotion of ecotourism by international lending agencies such as the World Bank. Moreover, despite government efforts to develop creditable policies to deal with tourism, their efforts are often undermined by external forces beyond their control. For example, a recent UNCTAD study showed that the outflow of foreign exchange generated by tourism can reach levels as high as 75 per cent.

Perhaps the best indicator to show who really stands to benefit from ecotourism promotion is probably the fact that one of the IYE's principal organisers was in fact the WTO - the world's major proponent of the liberalisation of tourism services. This would certainly have favoured multinational tourism corporations such as airlines and hotels with a financial stake in the reduction or elimination of trade barriers. Small scale ecotourism operators are concerned that the WTO's free trade stance can not only undermine governments, but also small operators who are not equipped to compete against such large multinationals. Such large tour operators offer ecotourism in name only and continue to fail in the improving the sustainable economy sector. This is where the industry is particularly deceptive because "it is almost completely controlled by large foreign companies based in rich tourist-generating countries, so a large proportion of tourist dollars either never reaches the developing host economies or inevitably flows out in the form of repatriated profits or other payments."

To conclude, Ecotourism is another ‘tragedy of the commons.' Its good intentions are only simply achievable in theory, especially when it examining its usage as a tool for sustainable development. There do, however, remain some examples of positive impacts of ecotourism, but these are small victories in a war which is ultimately being lost. From Indigenous communities to governments and from flora to wildlife, ecotourism has created more problems than solutions and despite the attempts of grass roots organisations to achieve greater and more effective monitoring of tourist activities it is clear that there is no place for a fairer and more sustainable tourism in a world under corporate rule. It could further be argued that any viable alternatives will never be able to thrive as long as there exists a globalized economy controlled by a minority who dictates its rules to local societies. Some say the premise offered of unspoilt nature and cultures where few people have gone before is simply a calculated move to entice those with higher incomes to cleanse their souls. There are ggod reasons though, why few people have gone to these places before; they are fragile, inhospitable places that do not easily support human life. These ecosystems are being ruined by what David Nicholson-Lord calls the shock troops of Western-style capitalism, tourists, who are distributing social and psychological viruses just as effectively as earlier colonists spread Smallpox and TB. Ecotourism is indeed an eco-sinner "destroying the very world it wishes us to see…whilst desperately trying to appear ecologically responsible."

.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Becken,S (00) ‘The Energy Costs of the Ecotourism Summit in Quebec' Journal Of Sustainable Tourism Vol.10 No#5 00

Cater,E & Lowman,G (14) ‘Ecotourism A Sustainable Option?' Wiley

Endicott,M.L (17) ‘Towards Definition' 1th Nov www.green-travel.com/gtdef.htm

Barkin,D (16) ‘Ecotourism A Tool for Sustainable Development' www.planeta.com

Green,R (00) ‘The tour operator's dilemma Keeping the customer happy while not disturbing the wildlife' www.planeta.com

Healy,R.G (14) ‘Tourist Merchandise as a means of regenerating local benefits from Ecotourism'

Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol.1 No# 14

Kamauro,D (16) ‘Ecotourism Suicide or Development?' Voices From Africa #6 Sustainable Development.

McLaren,D (001) Letter to Oliver Hillel, www.twnside.org.sg/title/iye4.htm

Munt, I (14) ‘Ecotourism or Egotourism' Race and Class Vol.6 No#1

Nichloson-Lord,D (00) ‘World The Blight Of Ecotourism' June 1th www.corpwatch.org/news/PND.jsp?articleid=77

Pleumarom,A (001) ‘Do we need the international year of ecotourism?' www.twnside.org.sg/title/iye1.htm,

Pleumarom,A (001) ‘ Campaign On Corporate Power in Tourism (COCPIT)' www.twnside.org.sg/title/eco1.htm p1

Steel,P (1) ‘The economics of eco-tourism' In focus

Third World Network (001) ‘NGO Statement to Government Delegates at the UN' www.twnside.orgsg/title/eco4.htm

Wickers,D (1) ‘Whither Green?' Sunday Times, January 5th

Wight,P (1) ‘Ecotourism Ethics or Eco-Sell?' Journal of Travel Research, Vol No# Winter '.

Appendix

( i )

Cater,E & Lowman,G (14) ‘Ecotourism A Sustainable Option?' Wiley

Appendix

( ii )

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US trade barriers against China

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Cause of the disputes

The Bush administration accused China of a host of trade violations, including intellectual property theft and trade barriers.

Manufacturers complained about rampant piracy of intellectual property, forced transfer of technology from firms launching joint ventures in China, trade barriers and capital markets that are largely insulated from free-market pressures, Evans said.

Evans also announced the creation of a new Unfair Trade Practices Team inside the Commerce Department to address trade barriers that are costing American jobs, as well as two new posts - an assistant secretary for trade promotion and an assistant secretary for manufacturing.

The announcements made in September, 15th in Detroit followed a series of 0 round-table discussions his agency has held around the country examining problems in manufacturing, Since July 000, manufacturing companies have lost .7 million jobs.

During those meetings, no country raised more attention as a source of concern than China, Evans said.

He gave as one example the experience of the manufacturer of Wrigley chewing gum, which has a 70 percent share of the Chinese market. Evans said that a Wrigley official told him that the Chinese were violating the companys copyrights by selling pirated gum in the city of Guangzhou and had even gone so far as to copy the designs of the Wrigley distribution trucks and were now driving the same routes.

Thats not a pretty picture, said Evans, who accused the Chinese of failing to live up to commitments it made in December 001 when it joined the World Trade Organization. China said at the time that it would open up its distribution systems to foreign suppliers and allow foreign non-bank companies to offer auto loans to consumers in China.

Evans pledged that the Bush administration would aggressively target unfair trade practices wherever they occur. American manufacturers can compete against any countrys white collars and blue collars but we will not submit to competing against another countrys choke collars.

American manufacturers have complained that China is artificially keeping the Chinese currency undervalued by as much as 40 percent to make American products more expensive in China and other markets where U.S. goods compete against Chinese products.

Evans said the new Unfair Trade Practices Team would work within the departments International Trade Administration while a new assistant secretary for trade promotion would also serve as the director general of the agencys Foreign Commercial Service, which supplies U.S. embassies with Commerce officials whose job is to help American companies operate in various foreign countries.

Senator Joe Lieberman, a Democrat representing Connecticut, said the Bush administration was late in addressing the issue.?The Bush administrations attention to Chinas trade abuses is .5 million jobs late. Weve been hemorrhaging manufacturing jobs for the last 1/ years, he said.

Senator Charles Schumer, a Democrat representing New York, said the Bush administration should be supporting his legislation to impose across-the-board tariffs of 7.5 percent on Chinese imports to penalize the country for undervaluing its currency to gain competitive advantage against U.S. exports.

China has been a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) for almost two years, but is still dragging its heels on fulfilling its WTO commitments. If it were a smaller economy, some of Chinas transgressions could be tolerated, but when the worlds fourth largest trading nation ignores its obligations, Chinas trading partners ought to act.

Till now, one thing is clear Bush administrations action is based on the belief that China will not change its behavior unless it faces credible prospects of retaliation. Therefore, persuading China to comply with its WTO obligations will take a combination of economic leverage and diplomatic pressure.

US Trade Barriers against China Textile Export

Therefore, the Bush administration is promising to further the cause of free trade by putting up barriers to trade. The U.S. Department of Commerce announced on November 18th that, at the request of American textile manufacturers, it will limit imports of Chinese-made brassieres, sleepwear and knit fabrics. (Based on the Section 01-- the 174 Trade Act)

Trade advocates immediately decried the decision, but the administration argues that the quotas will only restrict the growth of imports. And Republicans from textile states have said that they would not support future trade agreements unless the administration agreed to protect the industry.

When the time comes to vote on trade measures, though, its hardly clear that lawmakers from textile states will be forthcoming with their support. And if the president gets in the habit of protecting the nations least competitive industries, his credibility in trade talks will suffer.

Thats a major problem at a time when the United States is negotiating with other Western Hemisphere nations over the terms of a proposed Free Trade Area of the Americas. Pushing other nations to knock down barriers while putting new ones up in the United States amounts to telling the world, Do as I say, not as I do.

But even if President Bushs newest anti-trade measure doesnt provoke a trade war with China, its still a discouraging step.

Trade barriers are bad news for New Orleans and other port cities, which benefit from a free flow of goods around the world. Imported steel is one of the most important products that move through the Port of New Orleans, and the effect of tariffs has been dreadful. Steel, which normally represents about 40 percent of the cargo passing through the port, now accounts for only 5 percent.

Because no Chinese textiles pass through the Port of New Orleans, the quotas wont be nearly as damaging to the metro area as the steel tariffs have been.

Even so -- and even if textile quotas do temporarily improve the health of the domestic industry -- the consequences outweigh any benefits. One researcher calculates that government restrictions on the textile trade cost the average family of three, $400 to $500 a year. Those higher prices explain why retailers are up in arms about the new textile quotas.

Textile quotas may play well in textile states like North Carolina, just as the steel tariffs have shored up support for the president in Pennsylvania, Ohio and Kentucky. But these trade restrictions hurt the cause of free trade and the nation as a whole.

China's Reponses

China has strongly protested plans by the United States to slap quotas on Chinese textile imports of dressing gowns and bras, accusing Washington of violating WTO principles of free trade.

The Chinese government expresses deep regret over this decision, the Ministry of Commerce said in a statement.

The American government ignored the strong opposition from the Chinese side, made such a recommendation, violating the World Trade Organizations principles of free trade, transparency and non-discrimination.

China threatened to take the issue to the rules-based global trade body.

The Chinese side retains the right to appeal to relevant agencies of WTO to protect the rights and interests of Chinese industries, the ministry said.

A ministry spokesman told AFP Chinese officials had cancelled a trip scheduled Wednesday to the US to meet soybean sellers.

The spat adds to a rising number of disputes between the two trading giants, as the US seeks to balance a 10 billion dollar trade deficit with China blamed on Beijing boosting its competitiveness by deliberately undervaluing its currency.

The new row erupted Tuesday as Washington announced quotas on Chinese textiles after finding a flood of subsidized imports has hurt US textile makers.

A US trade panel examining a complaint from the US textile industry called for safeguard relief against Chinese-made knit fabrics, dressing gowns and bras, the US Commerce Department said.

The move, which could limit the growth of Chinese imports to 7.5 percent annually, came under the provisions of Chinas accession agreement to the WTO.

But the ministry said the US measures did not fit the provision that allows the United States and other WTO members to impose temporary quotas in the event those imports are found to cause market disruption.

China did not explicitly threaten retaliatory measures, but said overall trade relations could be damaged.

China hopes the US will realize the negative impact the decision is bound to have on bilateral trade relations, the ministry said.

A group representing Chinese textiles manufacturers lambasted the US decision as completely wrong and arbitrary.

The China Chamber of Commerce for Import and Export of Textiles said the US textile sector had only itself to blame for slumping production.

It insisted Chinese manufacturers had nothing to do with the sharp increase in exports, saying the growth only underscored the changing nature of the industry.

The accusations of US domestic producers to Chinese textile exporters are fabricated, there is no factual foundation, it said.

One US industry group estimated that since 001 exports of dressing gowns from China have increased by 05 percent, bras by 8 percent and knit fabrics by 8,000 percent.

But the chamber argued China has become one of the USs bright spots in its textile exportation market and benefits much more from maintaining the fast growth of the market.

It further reminded Washington that Chinas textile imports from the US have grown sharply, surging 148 percent to 787 million in the first nine months of this year compared with the same period last year.

Given that the restrictions would be calculated in dollar values rather than volume, they would affect a fraction of the total textile trade between the two countries, which suggested the move was politically motivated.

The products affected have an annual export value of less than one billion dollars, so its unlikely there will be any substantial impact on Chinese textile exporters, said Li Zhixian, a textile analyst at Guotai Junan Securities.

The US government seems to be doing this more for political reasons than economic reasons.

In response, the dollar sunk to record lows against the euro in Tokyo, with the euro hitting 1.178 dollars.

Analysts attributed the slide to worries that the US move could open the door to other protectionist barriers.

So far, China has not threatened to retaliate. And while the Chinese government said it would reserve the right to seek relief from the World Trade Organization, the statement came from a Commerce Ministry spokesman rather than a policymaker. Beijing-watchers take this as a sign that, for now, Chinas leaders dont see the issue as a major one.

That reaction is far more muted than the outcry in Europe over the steel tariffs that President Bush imposed last year. After the WTO ruled last week -- as expected -- that the tariffs violate international trade rules, the European Union prepared $. billion worth of retaliatory tariffs on American products.

Conclusion

The trade barrier battle between China and US is hard to predict and if it can not be calmed down, it is not a good thing to both sides.

First of all, China has to admit that it gives the protection to certain departments and products violate the WTO accession agreement.

Secondly, the too aggressive action taken by US against China is not appropriate.

China's trade surpluses with American and European countries first reflect China's police of welcome to the foreign direct investment. It shows that China is not pushing trade protectionism. In addition, China's opening degree is also manifested in its relatively low import tariff after joining WTO. Admittedly, it still can not qualify the standards of a WTO membership.

At last, I do agree that China need to cope with the fair trade competition. And speed up its reform of every social and economy aspect. A more open and free trade market between China and US is not only good for the American economy but also good for China. So, I believe the American's push to China to speed up its opening process is necessary but it is also not wise to push too much and hurry. I think China and USA need more talk and cooperation at this point and achieve a win-win solution based on their common goal-boosting their own economies, is not impossible.

US Trade Barriers against China's Export

Prepared by Jing Wang

Appendix

SUMMARY OF U.S.-CHINA BILATERAL WTO AGREEMENT

AGRICULTURE

The Agreement would eliminate barriers and increase access for U.S. exports across a broad range of commodities. Commitments include

?Significant cuts in tariffs that will be completed by January 004. Overall average for agricultural products will be 17.5 percent and for U.S. priority products 14 percent (down from 1 percent).

?Establishment of a tariff-rate quota system for imports of bulk commodities, e.g., wheat, corn, cotton, barley, and rice, that provides a share of the TRQ for private traders. Specific rules on how the TRQ will operate and increased transparency in the process will help ensure that imports occur. Significant and growing quota quantities subject to tariffs that average between 1- percent.

?Immediate elimination of the tariff-rate quota system for barley, peanut oil, sunflower-seed oil, cottonseed oil, and a phase-out for soybean oil.

?The right to import and distribute products without going through a state-trading enterprise or middleman.

?Elimination of export subsidies on agricultural products.

China has also agreed to the elimination of SPS barriers that are not based on scientific evidence.

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS

China would lower tariffs and eliminate broad systemic barriers to U.S. exports, such as limits on who can import goods and distribute them in China, as well as barriers such as quotas and licenses on U.S. products.

TARIFFS

?Tariffs cut from an average of 4.6 percent to an average of .4 percent overall and 7.1 percent on U.S. priority products.

?China will participate in the Information Technology Agreement (ITA) and eliminate all tariffs on products such as computers, telecommunications equipment, semiconductors, computer equipment, and other high-technology products.

?In the auto sector, China will cut tariffs from the current 80-100% level to 5% by mid-006, with the largest cuts in the first years after accession.

?Auto parts tariffs will be cut to an average of 10% by mid-006.

?In the wood and paper sectors, tariffs will drop from present levels of 1-18% on wood and 15-5% on paper down to levels generally between 5% and 7.5%.

?China will also be implementing the vast majority of the chemical harmonization initiative. Under that initiative, tariffs will be at 0, 5.5 and 6.5 percent for products in each category.

RIGHT TO IMPORT AND DISTRIBUTE

Trading rights and distribution are among the top concerns for U.S. manufacturers and agricultural exporters. At present, China severely restricts trading rights (the right to import and export) and the ability to own and operate distribution networks. Under the Agreement, trading rights and distribution services will be progressively phased in over three years. China will also open up sectors related to distribution services, such as repair and maintenance, warehousing, trucking and air courier services.

SERVICES

China has made commitments to phase out most restrictions in a broad range of services sectors, including distribution, banking, insurance, telecommunications, professional services such as accountancy and legal consulting, business and computer related services, motion pictures and video and sound recording services. China will also participate in the Basic Telecommunications and Financial Services Agreements.

ANTIDUMPING AND SUBSIDIES METHODOLOGY

The agreed protocol provisions ensure that American firms and workers will have strong protection against unfair trade practices including dumping and subsidies. The U.S. and China have agreed that we will be able to maintain our current antidumping methodology (treating China as a non-market economy) in future anti-dumping cases. This provision will remain in force for 15 years after Chinas accession to the WTO. Moreover, when we apply our countervailing duty law to China we will be able to take the special characteristics of Chinas economy into account when we identify and measure any subsidy benefit that may exist.

PRODUCT-SPECIFIC SAFEGUARD

The agreed provisions for the protocol package also ensure that American domestic firms and workers will have strong protection against rapid increases of imports.

?To do this, the Product-Specific Safeguard provision sets up a special mechanism to address increased imports that cause or threaten to cause market disruption to a U.S. industry. This mechanism, which is in addition to other WTO Safeguards provisions, differs from traditional safeguard measures. It permits United States to address imports solely from China, rather than from the whole world, that are a significant cause of material injury through measures such as import restrictions. Moreover, the United States will be able to apply restraints unilaterally based on legal standards that differ from those in the WTO Safeguards Agreement. This could permit action in more cases. The Product-Specific Safeguard will remain in force for 1 years after China accedes to the WTO.

TEXTILES

Chinas protocol package will include a provision drawn from our 17 bilateral textiles agreement, which permits U.S. companies and workers to respond to increased imports of textile and apparel products. This textile safeguard will remain in the effect until December 1, 008, which is four years after the WTO agreement on Textile and Clothing expires.

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HRM- job analysis and design

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on HRM- job analysis and design. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality HRM- job analysis and design paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in HRM- job analysis and design, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your HRM- job analysis and design paper at affordable prices with cheap essay writing service! I. Introduction.

The University of Melbourne is a large and developing corporation consisting of a diverse workforce of approximately 5000. The University realises that in order to achieve competitive advantage the firm must seek to harness their human resources in innovatory ways. Facilitation of such has been sought through the analysis and subsequent redesign of jobs. The current design of Human Resource Officer (HRO) strongly advocates the satisfaction of high quality work performance through the advancement of employee motivation. However, analysis provides that collateral refinement of the current design may further enhance the enrichment of the position.

II. Key Issues.

A. Job Analysis

Cheap Custom Essays on HRM- job analysis and design

The importance of job analysis to managers and organisations can not be understated. Almost every HR activity requires some type of information that is gleaned from job analysis (Noe, Hollenbeck, Gerhart and Patrick, 14). The environmental challenges facing today's rapidly evolving business world demand a proactive response from managers and HR, the information provided by job analysis more readily facilitates such a response (Werther and Davis, 16). There is, hence, pertinence in the notion that job analysis is the building block of all that a HR manager does (Noe et al, 14).

The prominence of job analysis in HRM is easily identifiable, the application extends much further than the shaping of job descriptions, but rather infiltrates a myriad of different HR activities such as, HR planning, selection, performance appraisal, training and development, and job evaluation (Blunt, 186).

Broadly speaking there are three alternative approaches to job analysis, explication of job content, job requirements and job context. Fortunately, these are not mutually exclusive and each will yield different insights and information regarding the job. It is necessary to examine all three approaches together, because a dependence on any one will skew the analysis (Billsberry, 000).

A number of alternative methods were adopted to analyse the position of HRO. More specifically, analysis involved the use of diaries, logs and interviews. Each job analysis method provides different type of information, the method used will ultimately depend on the type of information needed (Noe et al, 14). Interviews are an effective from of data collection as they enable the interviewer to explain unclear questions and probe into uncertain answers. Essentially, interviewing of the HRO ensures a high level of accuracy, although it is very time-consuming and costly (Werther et al, 16). The facilitation of an employee log or diary enables the HRO to periodically summarise tasks and activities. This collection of job information is generally regarded as being time-consuming for job holders and therefore proving costly, however it may be the only feasible method of analysis if interviews and questionnaires do not capture the complexity of the position (Stone, 00).

The success of an organisation rests heavily upon this detailed information. Thus, analysis is all about understanding, identifying and determining how the employee interacts with the job and the environment in which the job is set (Kelly and Clegg, 18). The basic premise, therefore, is that jobs are more likely to be described, differentiated, and evaluated consistently if accurate information is available (Bratton and Gold, 1). Moreover, the design and redesign of jobs becomes more readily accessible.

B. Interdependence between Job Analysis and Job Design.

The interdependence between job analysis and job design is unequivocally present. Often, a firm will seek to redesign work to make it more efficient and effective. To redesign the work, detailed information about the existing job must be available (Noe et al, 14). The organisation can then use the information generated via the written job descriptions and job specifications in the design or redesign of jobs (Stone, 00). Hence, it is important to understand the specific tasks so rendered by an employee in order to restructure or reallocate those tasks so that employee satisfaction and performance can be enhanced. The role of job analysis information consequently proves invaluable.

It is important to distinguish between the passive and active roles inherent in both practices. Where job analysis has focussed on analysing existing jobs to gather information, job design has more actively concentrated on redesigning existing jobs in order to promote efficiency and motivation. Thus job design maintains a more proactive orientation toward changing the job, whereas job analysis provides a passive information-gathering alignment (Noe et al, 14).

C. Job Design.

It is important to discern that organisations are structured around jobs, but the flexibility they seek is far more profound than simply considering new time patterns of work and new forms of pay (Sparrow and Marchington, 18). While these issues have to be considered, this is increasingly just a part of a total package, and part of a process that is compelling flexibility in the very definition of what a job constitutes (Hackman and Oldham, 180). As organisations attempt to introduce less rigid structures, extensive decentralisation and delegation of control, with enhanced productivity and competency in mind, they do so through the design of jobs.

A great deal of research has been conducted on the topic of job satisfaction, and a small number of important inferences about the ‘psychological requirements' for satisfying work have been drawn (Blunt, 186). The Hackman and Oldham model suggests the more that a job possesses five core job characteristics, the greater the motivating potential of the job. The existence of ‘moderators' such as knowledge and skills, growth need strength and context satisfactions explain why jobs theoretically high in motivating potential will not automatically generate high levels of motivation and satisfaction for all workers (Hackman et al, 180). This approach to job design emphasizes the fulfillment of social needs by recomposing fragmented jobs. First, there is a principle of closure, whereby the scope of the job is such that it includes all the tasks to complete a product or process, thus satisfying the social need of achievement. Second, there is the incorporation of control and monitoring tasks, whereby the individual or group assume responsibility for quality control. Third, there is a task variety whereby the worker acquires a range of different skills so that job flexibility is possible. Fourth, there is a self-regulation of the speed of work. Fifth, there is a job structure that permits some social interaction and a degree of cooperation amongst workers (Bratton et al, 000).

D. Design of the Human Resource Officer.

When determining whether the position of HRO at Melbourne University need be redesigned it is first important to identify the type of environment with which it interacts. Analysis indicates that the HRO works in a predominantly service based environment, utilising knowledge and skills based on HR principles. The process of redesigning the HROs job is, as such, more conducive to a worker centred accentuation, where emphasis is given to designing jobs which are propitious to worker motivation and job satisfaction (Blunt, 186). The converse method of redesigning the position would place greater emphasis upon the processes and equipment used, whereby jobs are designed so as to minimise production time through the development of rational methods of work and work specialisation (Kelly et al, 18). However, such strategical design issues are widely accepted as being the preserve of manufacturing operations as they seldom offer opportunities for accomplishment, recognition, psychological growth, or other sources of satisfaction (Werther et al, 16).

This indicates that the position of HRO can not be designed by using only elements that aid efficiency. Rather, HR managers must draw heavily on behavioural research to provide a work environment that helps satisfy individual needs. The five core job dimensions need be aligned directly to the position of HRO in order to promote employee motivation and satisfaction, this shall, consequently, manifest itself in the form of high quality performance and low staff turnover (Blunt, 186). The term job enrichment, therefore, holds significant aptness in the examination of this position.

Job enrichment refers to a number of different processes of rotating, enlarging and aggregating tasks (Bratten et al, 000). As will later be discussed, though, not all of these activities prove relevant to the position of HRO.

To adequately understand the position of HRO, management must first understand the larger context in which the job exists. To view the position in isolation from other jobs with which it is interdependent will result in a flawed conception of the position (Noe et al, 14). Analysis indicates the position lies within the Client Services Unit in the department of Human Resources. The issue of workflow design holds particular pertinence in the context of this examination. Workflow design recognises the analysis and subsequent design of the position of HRO is only effective when viewed with regard to the larger process of the unit's workflow (Noe et al, 14). Analysis indicates that this has readily been considered in the current design of the position as the roles and tasks of the HRO are soundly linked to the primary purpose and key activities of the Client Services Unit in which it operates.

D.1. Behavioural Elements.

As evidenced previously in the report, a major consideration in the design of jobs is the degree of task variety inherent in the position. The current design of HRO promotes employee satisfaction by injecting extensive diversity into job tasks. The impetus behind the variety, is to reduce the boredom and monotony associated with performing one simplified task, through the diversification of worker activities (Bratten et al, 000). The undergoing of multiple tasks and activities such as recruitment, payroll and training operates to expand the job cycle and draw on a wider range of employee skills. Such a practice is commonly referred to as horizontal loading (Werther et al, 16), however it appears not to have been intently pursued as a component of the job design, but rather a product of necessity.

A recent review of the position has resulted in a series of changes. These variations see certain payroll aspects of the position being removed so as to be rendered by staff in other sections of HR. Accordingly, the HROs position in more complex activities has been enhanced. The intrinsic motivation behind such restructuring is to seek increased organisational versatility by tapping, and better matching, the skills, capabilities, adaptability and creativity of the workforce through management intervention (Sparrow et al, 18). Relevant to the position of HRO, such intervention has also attempted to reduce boredom by curtailing tedious activities. This appears to be a sound decision made by management, and is upheld by extensive research.

Intrinsic and extrinsic feedback also constitutes a subset of overall job enrichment, and holds that the effectiveness of work activities should be validated by other members of staff and through the actual undertaking of a task itself. The notion provides that when jobs do not give employees feedback as to how well they are doing, there is little guidance or motivation to perform better (Werther et al, 16). Prompt feedback of results allows for inaccurate behaviour to be rapidly corrected. Analysis provides that consultants, team leaders, and managers heavily support this extrinsic aspect in the current design by providing accurate information regarding the effectiveness of the HROs performance. Furthermore, the design permits clients to provide feedback. This ensures that the actual service provided by the HRO is monitored and appraised by those most reliant upon it, whilst contemporaneously offering an avenue for recognition and appreciation of one's work.

Recognition and appreciation are closely linked to the notion of task significance. In essence, appreciating that the work is important to others advances experienced meaningfulness and determines the extent to which the HRO finds the work meaningful, valuable and worthwhile (Billsberry, 000). The questionnaire indicates that task significance, although not constituting a major facet of the job design, is however present in the form of remuneration. The HRO may experience an even further sense of self-importance if task significance was enhanced. Such a notion will be touched upon in the recommendations.

It becomes evident, through analysis, that in most instances the job requires the completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work. This operates to satisfy the principle of closure wherein the HRO feels that he/she is making an identifiable contribution to the successful running of the organisation (Kelly et al, 18). Without task identity, the HRO may hold little sense of responsibility and pride in task results. The recommendation section will offer a proposal pertaining to increased knowledge development that will seek to ensure the exclusive completion of every task, in an effort to succor further job enrichment.

HRO involvement in more complex activities, planning days and the revision of their own PDs is a critical aspect of the current design of the position. The involvement emphasises operational knowledge so as to place the HRO in a better position to see the interrelationships between certain actions and resulting consequences. Accentuation is placed on broader and more proactive role orientations as well as the deployment and acquiring of more specific organisational knowledge (Sparrow et al, 18). Essentially, HRO involvement in both personal and organisational aspects of work advocates continuous employee learning, insight and development. Another means of ensuring such development has been touched upon by the current design of the position, it is commonly referred to as vertical loading.

Vertical loading seeks to add new sources of satisfaction to the job, by increasing responsibility, autonomy, and control (Werther et al, 16). Analysis indicates these characteristics do constitute a facet of the current design, however the issue remains whether these job attributes may be further abetted so as to enhance efficiency. The autonomy and control the HRO holds over the application of most day to day tasks impels a freedom to control their response to the environment. Research provides that jobs giving workers authority to make decisions provides added responsibilities that tend to increase an employee's sense of recognition and self-esteem and enhance opportunities for personal development, variety, and meaningfulness in work (Blunt, 186). The absence of autonomy, by contrast, can cause employee apathy or poor performance. Management at Melbourne University must nourish the notion that the HRO has control over activities, but not so much as to prevent them from knowing what to do next.

E. Issues of Design.

Job design as a concept captures a kaleidoscope of ad hoc and opportunistic initiatives. However, experience shows that these initiatives all risk high levels of failure if design and organisational implications are not adequately considered (Sparrow et al, 18). In the context of this examination, for instance, job rotation can not be regarded as a viable approach to job design. Analysis indicates that the HRO requires a great deal of experience, education and knowledge specific to the position. Staff in other areas can not easily reproduce these attributes, conversely it may prove difficult for the HRO to effectively discharge the work of another. This further reiterates the need for in-depth analysis prior to subsequent redesign implementation.

In designing jobs it is important to understand the trade off's inherent in focussing on one particular approach to job design (Noe et al, 14). Job enrichment is not a cure-all technique. Rather, it is a tool employed when analysis indicates that jobs are unrewarding, unchallenging and limit the motivation and satisfaction of employees. There is congruity, thus, in the concept that enriching the job while ignoring other variables that contribute to the quality of work life may simply increase dissatisfaction with the unimproved aspects of the job (Werther et al, 16).

Moreover, an influential study by Friedman (177) argues that although job enrichment techniques, such as vertical loading, may increase job satisfaction and commitment, the key focus remains managerial control. He maintains that job design strategies as a whole result in individuals being given a wider measure of discretion over their work with a minimum of supervision, and this ‘responsible autonomy' strategy is a means of maintaining and augmenting managerial authority over workers (Bratten et al, 000).

III. Recommendations.

It is to be noted that the current design of the position facilitates, to a large degree the five core job characteristics proposed by Hackman and Oldham (180). The University of Melbourne has, thus, harnessed their human resources in an innovatory manner in order to gain a competitive advantage. I propose, though, that further refinement of the current design may subsequently enhance such an advantage.

A. Increased Involvement in Planning and Strategic Issues.

As evidenced in the body of the report, the notion of task significance advances the meaningfulness an employee holds toward the job. Relevant to the position of HRO this meaningfulness may be further abetted by increased involvement in HR planning and strategic issues that are directly related to the advancement of organisational prosperity. Engagement in such activities will not only facilitate increased operational knowledge and skill, but also offer an opportunity for the HRO to be appointed to a more senior role within HR, indications of which appear within the analysis. Employee performance and motivation will inevitably be enhanced by the knowledge that the attainment of goals relates directly to opportunities for personal and professional fulfillment.

B. Knowledge Development Program.

Analysis indicates that although in most cases the HRO is able to complete a whole and identifiable piece of work there are instances in which the satisfaction of this requirement is left unfulfilled. These instances are the result of the HRO being unable to adequately draw upon the requisite skills and knowledge in answering particular client queries. The involvement of more senior staff and those with specialist skills is, thus, necessitated. This may result in the HRO holding little sense of responsibility and pride in task results. It is, therefore, recommended that the position be redesigned so as to facilitate further employee knowledge and skill pertaining to a more diverse range of issues. This requires the implementation of an employee training and development program that seeks to aid learning and growth in HRO competency and proficiency, thereby advancing the completion of every task from beginning to end. The obvious drawback to such a strategy is centred upon cost of design and implementation.

C. Facilitation of an Autonomous Work Team.

The most prominent redesign recommendation sees the facilitation of an autonomous work team. Analysis indicates that the coordination of such a team within the Client Services Unit is readily accessible. The strategy sees the unit being extensively trained to do each other's jobs and allows members to share and allocate among themselves the requirements for control and coordination of their task-related activities. The group thereby assumes responsibility for more than just the sum of the individual tasks (Billsberry, 000). In addition, the group takes responsibility for task interdependencies and for monitoring and controlling the contributions of its members. The role of the supervisor changes from that of direct control to a linking function between the work group and the larger organisation (Kelly et al, 18). This approach to job design shall seek to promote high productivity and quality while enhancing the quality of work life for the HRO and relevant team members. A sustainable competitive advantage through the notion of collaboration and reliance is the result.

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The Mezanine

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The Mezzanine A Review

By Lacey Kaufman

Upon beginning to read the Mezzanine I felt the urge to disregard the book in its entirety. The long passages about this thing or that thing was tedious and it was hard to follow just for the simple reason that it was different than that which I am used to reading. Eventually, however, I did settle into the book and let the words develop into sense in their own time. The most enjoyable parts of the book are the ones that smack with familiarity, knowing that I have thought something similar to what Baker is saying . These thoughts, easily recognizable but never clearly defined, where like a reminder of a dream that I could not remember.

The Mezzanine follows a character, Howie, through each of his thoughts for only the beginning of a work day. The reader does not only get to look at the characters present state of mind though, for his thoughts are all deeply rooted in origin and habit, of which he is more than happy to share. This back history for each thought, makes the reader realize that each of his own thoughts have a history, although quite original, not that different from the ones that Baker describes. Throughout the morning, this business man addresses ideas, so intricate and fresh that at first they appear alarming. Baker's character even comes off as a little bit "crazy", and yet he knows himself better than most all readers. The only disappointing part of his stairway of thoughts is the fact that he rarely addresses what could be improved in his own realm of emotional and intellectual security. Baker eludes to his characters insecurity and dissatisfaction with his own life, only briefly. There is a line in the first half in which Howie relates that he has not become the man he had wished, and even expected to become. He also seems to have a spiritual battle with his lustful thoughts, this is shown through a disturbing relationship between himself and a female cashier who sells him Penthouse (though he would rather be purchasing the filthiest of the smut such as, Club). In Howie's list of thoughts some of them are that he has no friends, and that his friends are smarter than him. This shows not only his truly human reactions, but an insecurity that, unlike the bulk of his thoughts, illogically and not based on anything factual.

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I think this book is more for the male population, for there are several parts to which Justus could relate wholly, while I was left looking through the window into a mind very much unlike my own. Of course this is more than just because Justus is male and I am female; he constantly thinks about the details of life that I rarely consider. The male driven prospective is shown most evidently when Howie speaks of urinals, and the fascination with women taking their bras off while remaining dressed.

It is truly amazing that Baker and explore so many avenues of reality through the morning of one man's thoughts. Each topic of our humanities class was covered at least briefly and always in perspective I hd yet to consider. Gender is explored by viewing things through a males eyes. Relationships are looked at by the way he treats his coworkers, his girlfriend L, and his parents. Howie seems almost cold to anything that can not be picked apart, but I don't think that, that's entirely true; maybe he was just not thinking about people as much as he was about things on the morning we share with him.

Overall I think the book is an amazing piece of Art that allows each reader to rethink his rethinking. With each moment there is a fragment of history, our own, and others. Upon closer examination, perhaps we all could benefit from Howie's perspective of life.

Please note that this sample paper on The Mezanine is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Mezanine, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on The Mezanine will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Malcolm X and his Views of the"White Man" in America Before and After Mecca

If you order your Cheap Custom Essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Malcolm X and his Views of the"White Man" in America Before and After Mecca. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Malcolm X and his Views of the"White Man" in America Before and After Mecca paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Malcolm X and his Views of the"White Man" in America Before and After Mecca, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Malcolm X and his Views of the"White Man" in America Before and After Mecca paper at affordable prices with cheap essay writing service! Malcolm X was a very important figure for the black race in America during his time. Fighting against racism, oppression and segregation, he was one of Americas leaders for African American democracy and black liberation in the United States. During Malcolm's pilgrimage to the holy City of Mecca, his views of the white race drastically changed within a few months. With the society of America and the orthodox Muslim religion of Islam as his guide, Malcolm had two completely opposite views of whites before and after his trip to Mecca. This change of thought was a very intricate part of Malcolms life, because it helped him see the intricacy of the white and black race problem in America. From this gained knowledge, Malcolm also realizes that the solution of the racial problem in America, is the Muslim religion where both races accept the Oneness of God and become "brothers" despite the differences in color and appearance.

Before Malcolm's pilgrimage, he viewed the white man as the "devil" of the world. From childhood, Malcolm had been looking for an answer or excuse that explained the black man's racial problems in America. With the help of Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm found thought he had fond the answer when he developed the theory of black separation from the white devil. During and Malcolm's pilgrimage, his thoughts changed as he realized and witnessed the truth about the white man throughout the world. Malcolm saw that, both the white and black race could be brother and sister, through Islam

Malcolms childhood had an immediate affect on his views of himself and whites in America. Malcolm witnessed firsthand the violence of racism projected by the white man. Louis Decardo explains this idea as he writes, In the particular sense of racism, Malcolm would come to know from his youth the reality of white racial animosity and innocence toward the black struggle. During Malcolms youth he and his family were harassed and threatened by white racists. Malcolm describes this harassment as he writes, The white kids didnt make any great thing abut us, either. They called us nigger and darkie and Rastus so much that we thought those were our natural names. This had an immediate impact on his perception of the white race as whole. At the mere age of six, the little family suffered an everlasting loss when Malcolms father was murdered by white racists. Louis Decardo describes how Malcolm viewed his father's death as he writes, Like the rest of the family, Malcolm viewed his fathers tragic death through the lens of a racist system. In an interview with Kennith Clark, Malcolm shows his reasoning behind this belief as he states, The police department and various branches of the law were interwoven with that Klan element, so the Klan had the backing of the police, and usually the police had the backing of the Klan. The culmination of Malcolms childhood experiences caused Malcolm to start to develop a feeling of animosity towards the white race. Michael Dyson describes this feeling that Malcolm develops in the passage below

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This experience of racial violence, which Malcolm termed his earliest vivid memory, deeply influenced his unsparing denunciation of white racism during his public career as a Black Nationalist leader.

Another event that had an impact on Malcolm occurred during his schooling when his dreams of becoming a lawyer were broken by Mr. Ostrowski his 8th grade English teacher. Malcolms dreams vanish when Mr. Ostrowski states, But youve got to be realistic about being a nigger. A lawyer -- thats no realistic goal for a nigger. You need to think about something you can be. This conversation forced Malcolm to realize the degree of racism and the lack of equal opportunity that occurred in the Americas society during that time. That event marked the first major change in Malcolms association with and perception of himself in the eyes of the white man in America. This devastating insult caused Malcolm to virtuously abandon his schoolwork and question his identity as a member of the black race. This realization caused Malcolm to search for an identity. Realizing the status of blacks he tries to remake himself into a white person by acquiring a zoot suit, wearing a conk hair cut, walking a diddybop, dancing a lindy hop and most importantly dating a white woman. Malcolm shows this by stating, I was trying as hard as I could to become white. Malcolm finally thinks he has found himself when he adopts the hood mentality, which got him familiar with hoodlums, thieves, dope peddlers, and pimps. This eventually lead to Malcolms seven-year imprisonment at the mere age of 0.

In prison, Malcolm was introduced to the religion of Islam, which guided him to a new and more powerful feeling towards the white race throughout the world. The religion of Islam, the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, a man by the name of John Elton Bembry (whom Malcolm called Bimbi) and Malcolms older brother, Reginald helped lead Malcolm to a new view of history and religion along with this new vision of whites in the world. Bimbi influenced Malcolms decision to take his first steps towards the religion of Islam, which include this new vision. With the quote in mind, If you take one step towards Allah -- Allah will take two steps towards you. Malcolm took his first steps, which were to stop eating pork and to stop smoking cigarettes. Malcolm starts to develop new feelings towards whites when Reginald states, The white man is the devil and when he explained how "slavery had deprived Americas blacks of their cultural roots and left them mentally dead. A piece of this conversation is shown in Malcolms Autobiography as he writes

You dont even know who you are," Reginald had said. You dont even know, the white devil has hidden it from you, that you are a race of ancient civilizations, and riches in gold and kings. You dont even know your true family name, you wouldnt recognize your true language if you heard it. You have been cut off by the devil white man from all true knowledge of your own kind. You have been a victim of the evil of the devil white man ever since he murdered and raped and stole you from your native land in the seeds of your forefathers.

This conversation made Malcolm realize the truth about his race in relation to the white race in America and this discussion is what sparked the fire that Malcolm developed towards whites. Within the next month, Malcolm decided to accept the teachings of Elijah Muhammad," who taught him the natural religion and true knowledge of the black man through the religion of Islam. This passage from Malcolms autobiography shows the true knowledge summed up

The true knowledge, reconstructed much more briefly that I received it, was that history has been whitened in the white mans history books, and that the black man had been brainwashed for hundreds of years. Originally Man was black, in the continent called Africa where the human race had emerged on the planet earth... Human historys greatest crime was the traffic in black flesh when the devil white man went into Africa and murdered and kidnapped to bring to the West in chains, in slave ships, millions of black men, women, and children who were worked and beaten and tortured as slaves. ... The devil white man cut these black people off from all knowledge of their kind, and cut them off from any knowledge of their own language, religion, and past culture, until the black man in America was the earths only race of people who had absolutely no knowledge of his true identity.

As Malcolm became more exposed to Elijah Mohammed's teachings he began to accept them, and he started to look for his own proof for the things that he was hearing. Malcolm begins to read books about the details of black history, which also contributed to his feelings for whites. Malcolm shows what he has learned about black history as he writes, History has been so whitened by the white man that even the black professors have known little more than the most ignorant black man about the talents and rich civilizations of the black man of millenniums ago.

As a preacher, Malcolm represented Elijah Mohammed's and revealed his teachings about the white devil in America. Malcolm had more faith in the teachings of Elijah Muhammad than any other word upon the earth. By now, Malcolm believed the white man was the devil. In Malcolms autobiography he shows his thoughts about the white mans persuasive Christian religion in the passage below

Brothers and sisters, the white man has brainwashed us black people to fasten our gaze upon a blond-haired, blue-eyed Jesus! We are worshiping a Jesus that doesnt even look like us! Oh. yes! Now just bear with me, listen to the teachings of the Messenger of Allah, The Honorable Elijah Muhammad. Now just think of this. The blond-haired, blue-eyed white man has taught you and me to worship a white Jesus, and to shout and sing and pray to this God thats his God, the white mans God. And while we are doing all that, for himself, this blue-eyed devil has twisted his Christianity, to keep his foot on our backs . . . to keep our eyes fixed on the pie in the sky and heaven in the hereafter . . . while he enjoys his heaven right here . . . on this earth . . . in this life.

Malcolm believed that the white man would continue to use the black man and that the white man will never give the black man anything more than token integration. This caused Malcolm to believe in Elijah Mohammed's teachings, which says, the only solution for the black man in America is complete separation from the white man. Through the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm also felt that the white man has committed a huge sin against the black race of Africa during slavery, taking these tribal blacks away from their family, culture, and language, to work as slaves in a prejudiced, segregated, and oppressed America. This is shown in Malcolms autobiography as he quotes Elijah Muhammad

You are the planet Earths only group of people ignorant of yourself, ignorant of your own kind, of your true history, ignorant of your enemy! You know nothing at all but what your white slavemaster has chosen to tell you. And he has told you that which will benefit himself and his own kind. He has taught you, for his benefit, that you are a neutral, shiftless, helpless so-called ‘Negro.'

Malcolm believed that this sin was the mark of a devil and that the black man can never forgive it.

Malcolms pilgrimage to Mecca was a very important turning point in his life. Malcolms experiences in Germany and Arab allowed him to view whites and other races outside of America. Malcolm soon realized the difference between American society compared to other societies around the world. This aspect is shown as quoted from Malcolms autobiography, In Europe, wed walk in, any store, every store, and it would be Hello...Europeans act more human, or humane, whichever the right word is. As soon as Malcolm arrived in Frankford, Germany, he immediately noticed the hospitality of all people overseas, which he knew, failed to exist in America. Malcolm was shocked to see white people treating him like their own because he was so used to racism and segregation towards blacks in America. Below is a passage from Malcolms autobiography where he writes about his plane ride to Jetta

Packed in the plane were white, black, brown, red, and yellow people, blue eyes and blond hair, and my kinky red hair -- all together, brothers! All honoring the same God, all in turn giving equal honor to each other. 54

As Malcolms voyage continued, he started to realize how wrong he had been about his previous judgements and beliefs of the white race as a whole especially in America. Malcolm soon realized that his thoughts of the white man were primarily in response to 400 years of slavery and segregation in America and that the Muslim white men could not be held responsible for the sin of slavery that was committed in America. Malcolm explains this concept in the passage below

That is when I first began to reappraise the white man. It was when I first began to perceive that white man, as commonly used, means complexion only secondarily; primarily it described attitudes and actions. In America,white man meant specific attitudes and actions toward the black man, and toward all other non-white men. But in the Muslim world, I had seen that men with white complexions were more genuinely brotherly than anyone else had ever been. That morning was the start of a radical alteration in my whole outlook about white men.

In Arab, during Malcolms pilgrimage, he was awed and astonished when a Muslim white man named Abdel Azzam lodged Malcolm in his suite. Malcolm was so overwhelmed because he knew that this Muslim white man went out his way and was doing Malcolm a favor in spite of the fact that Malcolm was perceived as a white racist by the American press. Malcolm shows this as he writes, The white man...with nothing in the world to gain, had given up his suite to me, for my transient comfort. He had nothing to gain. He didnt need me. He had everything, In-fact he had more to loose than gain. He had followed the American press about me... I was a racist," I was anti white and he from all appearances was white." That experience forced Malcolm to reevaluate Elijah Muhammads white devil theory because Malcolm was taught that the white man was evil and that the white man could not perform good deeds to help blacks.

Everything about the pilgrimage accented the Oneness of Man Under God

The above quote was the theme of Malcolm's pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca. In Mecca, Malcolm witnessed and participated in the brotherhood of all men composed of all colors through the religion of Islam. In a question asking Malcolm what impressed him the most during his pilgrimage, he answered The brotherhood! The people of all races color, from all over the world coming together as one! It has proven to me the power of the One God. During the pilgrimage Malcolm went through all of the religious ceremonies and rituals alongside men of many races including white men. In Malcolms autobiography he explains this concept in more details

There were tens of thousands of pilgrims, from all over the world. They were of all colors, from blue-eyed blondes to black-skinned Africans. But we were all participating in the same ritual displaying a spirit of unity and brotherhood that my experiences in America handled me to believe never could exist between the white and the non-white.... During the past eleven days here in the Muslim world, I have eaten from the same plate, drunk from the same glass, and slept in the same bed (or on the same rug) -- while praying to the same God -- with fellow Muslims, whose eyes were the bluest of blue, whose hair was the blondest of blond, and whose skin was the whitest of white. And in the words and in the actions and in the deeds of the white Muslims, I felt the same sincerity that I felt among the black African Muslims of Nigeria, Sudan, and Ghana.

As Malcolm continued with his rituals during his Hajj in Mecca, he soon realized the problem of his previous ways of thinking about the race issues in American society. Malcolm identified the color-blindness of the Muslim worlds society and the color-blindness of the Muslims worlds human society, as a mode of influence in his previous ways thinking about the white man. All of these experiences combined to form Malcolm's new view of whites in America.

Each hour here in the Holy Land enables me to have greater spiritual insights into what is happening in America between black and white. The American Negro never can be blamed for his racial animosities -- he is only reacting to four hundred years of the conscious racism of the American whites. But as racism leads America up the suicide path I do believe, from the experiences that I have had with them, that the whites of the younger generation, in the colleges and universities, will see the handwriting on the wall and many of them will turn to the spiritual path of truth -- the only way left to America to ward off the disaster that racism inevitably must lead to . . . We were truly all the same (brothers) -- because their belief in one God had removed the white from their minds, the white from their behavior, and the white from their attitude. I could see from this, that perhaps if white Americans could accept the Oneness of God, then perhaps, too, they could accept in reality the Oneness of Man -- and cease to measure, and hinder, and harm others in terms of their differences in color.

In the past, yes, I have made sweeping indictments of all white people. I will never be guilty of that again -- as I know now that some white people are truly sincere, that some truly are capable of being brotherly toward a black man. The true Islam has shown me that a blanket indictment of all white people is as wrong as when whites make blanket indictments against blacks.

Taking into consideration, Malcolms previous experiences with the white man, it took a unique and powerful experience to change Malcolms views of whites as a whole. Before Mecca, Malcolm had a biased unequal view of the white man. Malcolm envisioned every white man as they appeared in America during and after slavery. Malcolm failed to realize the other Muslim whites throughout the word that worshiped and prayed to the same god as he did. Elijah Muhammad and his teachings of separation through Islam helped fuel Malcolm's misconception of the white man in America.

Malcolm's pilgrimage was the only force that could change his views of whites. Malcolm had been too involved and too persuaded by the teachings of Elijah Muhammad and too mesmerized by racism in America to just abandon his beliefs. Racism and segregation were proof of the "white devil" of America in Malcolm's eyes. Elijah Muhammad's solution to America's racial problem was a feasible one in Malcolm's eyes. This drew Malcolm more closer to the teachings of Elijah Muhammad and the religion of Islam.

In Mecca Malcolm was shocked to see the absence of racism and segregation by the white. Malcolm had became so accustomed to the serrated American society, that he found it hard to comprehend that people of different races could be brothers under the same religion. Malcolm soon realized that the answer to America's racial problem is not separation, but attachment and accepting the Oneness of God through Islam. Malcolm also believed that in Alla's eyes, there is no "white man" and everyone is all the same. When one is in his pilgrimage, the black and white label is removed from man. The pilgrimage is what helped Malcolm see this miscomprehension he had towards the white man. The misconception is that all white man are not "evil," but in-fact many white men throughout the world are brotherly with people of all races and share a common bond through the religion of Islam.

Books

Asante, Molefi Kete. Malcolm X As Cultural Hero And Other Afrocentric Essays. Africa World Press. Trenton, New Jersey, 1

Decardo, Luis A. On the Side of My People A Religious Life of Malcolm X. New York University Press, 16

Dyson, Michael Eric. Making Malcolm The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X. Oxford University Press New York, New York 15

Gallen, David. Malcolm A To X The Man and His Ideas. Caroll & Graft Publishers, Inc. New York, New York, 1

Goldwin, Peter. The Death and Life of Malcolm X. Chicago University of Illinois Press, 17

Malcolm X, with Alex Haley. The Autobiography f Malcolm X. New York Grove Press, 165

Perry, Bruce. Malcolm The Life of a Man Who Changed America. Sation Hill Press Inc., Barrytown, New York 11

Web Sites

http//www.brothermalcolm.net/mxcontent.html

http//www.colostate.edu/Orgs/MSA/docs/m_x.html

http//home.earthlink.net/~malx/malxintro.htm

http//www.geocities.com/Athens/Troy/05/frames.html

http//www.cmgww.com/historic/malcolm/

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