1998 Water front dispute:how it could be avoided

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Waterfront dispute is one of the biggest and the most important disputes in the history of Australia. The waterfront dispute of 18 was an incredible tale of legal drama, violent confrontation, strange alliances, betrayals, family difference and nefarious deceit. The stakes were high the economic viability of the company at the centre of the dispute, Patrick Stevedores, was at risk; the government was pursuing a cornerstone of its labour market reform and the breaking of unionisation on the docks; the Maritime Union of Australia and it's supporter's, were fighting for survival and the principle of freedom of association the right to join a union and not be sacked for it. Everyone involved in this dispute faced problems. This dramatic battel between MUA and Patrick Stevedores represented the first major trial of strength between government and the unions.

As said by Tom Sheridan "History is important in understanding labour relations, particularly in those singular industries, notably coal mining and stevedoring, which often seem to challenge the old saw that if we forget history we will be condemned to repeat it again", it is important that if we don't remember what had happened and repeat it again we will responsible for another waterfront dispute in the future.

This dispute was not unavoidable. It could have been avoided if proper steps were taken to make it easier for both the parties to solve the dispute without dissolving personal interest of both the parties, in such a way that everyone gains something out of it rather than everyone loosing, like how it happened where the employees lost their jobs, employers a lot of money and the unions and government faced lots of problems. Some of the most important steps that could have helped are the proper human resource management practices by the stevedoring industry. If stevedoring industry would have taken proper steps and used proper human recourse practices it could have avoided lots of problems that it faced.

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Role of Human Resource Managers to Avoid 18 Waterfront Dispute

In today's world Human Resource Manager play a very important role in industries. They have many jobs like recruiting, human resource planning, job analysis and design, selection and placement and many more. In waterfront dispute stevedoring industry could have used proper human resource management practices and with the help of human resource managers could have avoided the dispute. Here some of the points the managers could have concentrate in order to avoid the dispute are

1. Managing Change

. Handling Workplace Grievances And Disciplining Employees

. Development; Training & Career

Managing Change

"Managing change means managing peoples fear. Change is natural and good, but peoples reaction to change is unpredictable and irrational. It can be managed if done right". Human resource mangers duty is to manage this change and let the employees feel comfortable and accept the change. Employees are usually feared of this change, they usually have negative attitude and perception towards change. They have different fears like losing their jobs, their status or their social security, afraid of a higher workload and many more.

The first effect of change on employees is negative these effects include fear, stress, frustration and denial of change. They are afraid of loosing something as they have incomplete information on how the change process is going to effect their personal situation in the terms of task, workload or responsibilities. Sometimes in changes there are job cuts and people who survive these cuts may also have negative attitude like feeling guilty because they still have the job while others became unemployed and other things which causes stress and thus lead to inefficient and ineffective work which will lead to lesser productivity of the company.

The managers need to keep all these in mind and try to achieve positive results and handle the change effectively. There are certain steps to be taken by the managers to manage change effectively they are

· Understanding The mangers have to do a proper study of the business environment, the organization and its culture and knowing the organizations capability to respond to critical factors and decide wether changes can be coped with and how they might be handled.

· Planning The second step to be taken by the managers is to set the strategic direction, communicate at all levels and give a clear idea both to the organization and its people of where it is going and why.

· Implementing The third step to be taken by the manager establishing a change programme, led by a good manager to make things happen and support people through training and development.

· Controlling the Change Process Last but not the least the managers had to expect the unexpected, keep track of progress, continue to learn and improve from the experience.

Changes can occur because of many reasons. It could be due to new product developmet, introduction of new technology, change in work force, reduced productivity, product quality, satisfaction, commitment and many more. Change can happen anytime and in any organization and cause of anything the human resouse managers role is to undertand it and try to manage it so that everyone gains something or the other from it.

In Australian Waterfront Dispute of 18 these mangers could have played a major role to avoid it to happen if stevedoing industry would have used proper human resource management practices. The stevedoring industry knew that there would be major changes in the industry because of the introduction of new technology and they knew that a lot of people would be left job less but didnt take any step. The employees used the help of unions to threaten the employers for better work facilities and other demands but the stevedoring industry with the help of govenment tried to get rid of the unions thus resulting in a big dispute in which everyone involved lost something .

If the human resource managers who were involved would have taken appropriate measures, they would have helped the employees to retain their jobs, the employes not to loose the huge sum of money they lost and the other parties as well. Some of the steps that would have helped the managers to avoid thes dipute are, they could have put up Voluntry redundancy plans by which the employees could have taken some proper benifits and awards and left the job themselves without creation such a big problem, they could have used Multi tasking for helping the employees to learn more skills and training them in different types of works and skills and helping them out, they could have Seeked new jobs for redundant employees by doing this the managers could have helped the employees at least of not loosing everything as they already have many industries in many fields they could have employed them there to help avoid this conflict.

Human resourse managers could have helped a lot to avoid this conflict they could have understood the changes that would have taken place and taken proper steps to help everyone involved in the dispute. This could have helped the stevedoring industry a lot.

HANDLING WORKPLACE GRIEVANCES AND DISCIPLINING EMPLOYEES

A grievance is a statement given by an employee about a problem, concern or even a complaint that arises in the work place. These may arise may be mainly due to allocation of work, job design, performance management, a workplace communication or interpersonal conflict, an occupational health or safety issue, an allegation of discrimination within the meaning of the Anti-Discrimination Act 177 including harassment, or a question, dispute or difficulty concerning the interpretation, application, or operation of an enterprise or any other agreement.

If the grievances of the employees are not resolved promptly, it may have a major impact in the organization. These may include problems like

· Lost productivity;

· Lower quality work, products and customer services;

· Distraction from corporate goals;

· Loss of confidence and communication between employees, managers and supervisors;

· Low morale and job satisfaction which can lead to industrial problems, increased absenteeism and increased staff turnover;

· Loss of reputation as an employer and service provider;

· Loss of reputation to the employee;

· Lost working time of everyone involved in dealing with a complaint; and

· The potential for legal action and damages.

Grievances and other issues rose by the employees need to be considered and effectively solved by the human resource managers. Grievances are just to deal with matters relating to an individual employee. The employees have got every right to take up any issue and report those problems to the management. The employer can also point out to any employee if the rules of the agreement are not followed. In some cases the use of grievance procedures can result in a recommendation that the employer take action through the disciplinary process. Unlike a grievance procedure, a discipline process deals with performance or conduct matters identified by the employer. If a grievance is raised during a discipline process, the grievance needs to be finalised but the disciplinary process should continue independently.

External support in dealing with grievances

The right of employees to seek appropriate external support and assistance to deal with their work-related concerns and grievances should be respected and incorporated into agency procedures. The employees should be made aware of the procedures of seeking and getting advice from the union and they should free to be represented by the union. People should be informed, when relevant, of their right to have an issue dealt with by an external organization such as the Anti-Discrimination Board or the Industrial Relations Commission.

It is the responsibility of the human resource managers to encourage employees to understand the agency's procedures for resolving work-related concerns and grievances and providing timely and confidential assistance to the employees in order to make sure that no conflicts arise between the employees and the management. It is the duty of the employees to take prompt action on work-related issues if they are not satisfied or feel that there is anything wrong with the agency's procedures.

As there are changes occurring in the workplace environment, organizations must adopt to that change in order to avoid conflicts between the employees and the employers. The Human Resource manager should ensure that they show considerable involvement in the selecting the right employees and providing them the right set of policies and procedures. He should also possess the ability to strategically assess the form of employment instrument that will be best suitable for the workers. By taking all these into consideration, the chances of arousal of industrial conflict in an organization can be avoided.

In the waterfront dispute, if the Human resource managers had been more vigilant about all the factors that need to be considered with regard to disputes with employees, then the industrial dispute that had led to during the waterfront could have been avoided. It is just that the employers were not aware of the requirements of the employees because of which the union had to rely on the police to remove pickets from the workplace. But if the problems were resolved between the employers and employees among themselves, then it would not have taken them so far to the police and disputations. The employees were also not very much aware of the policies of the organization. It is the human resource manager who is accountable for all these issues relating to problems in the work for the employees. The manager should have given some other opportunities for the employees as well if the unions alone were not able to solve the problem. They should have provided them with some other high authority or an agency that will be the right person to effectively understand and resolve the problems. It is the responsibility of him to ensure that all employees are aware of the policies and procedures of the unions and agencies, so that there will not be any conflicts in the future due to this. Employees need to be aware of the options available to them in a strike situation. If strikes are allowed to continue uncontrollably, there will be no incentives for employers and unions to deal with their problems constructively, which is the key issue on the waterfront. Therefore, if the human resource managers had effectively implemented the tools to select the employees, made them aware of the policies and considered their grievances and resolved them in order to grow satisfaction from employees and also to gain profitability, then it would not have been a necessity for the union to request the police to remove pickets. Thereby, measures could have been taken to avoid the dispute.

Development; Training & Career

Employee development is a key component of a company's human resource management efforts. It is a necessary component of a company's efforts to improve quality, to meet the challenges of global competition and social change, and to incorporate technological advances and changes in work design. Also companies (and their employees) have to constantly learn and change, to meet changing customers needs and compete in the ever changing markets, the emphasis placed on training and development has increased.

According to psychology, every one has some psychological needs & one of them is career and development accompanied with proper training. To retain and motivate employees, companies need to provide a system to identify and meet employee's development needs.

Measuring and managing performance is also an important function of HR management. HR manager must be aware of best suitable method of performance measure for employees and once performance is measured a major component of a manager job's is to feed that performance information back to employees in a way that result in improved performance rather than defensiveness and decreased motivation. Mangers should also take appropriate action on the cause of poor performance, whether it is ability or motivation or both.

The waterfront dispute can be seen as direct failure of human resource policies of the Patrick Stevedores employed at that time. The management practices of the employer, Patrick Stevedores was not able to motivate the employees indeed they were responsible for increasing the fear to lost the job among the employees. It is quit obvious that management was not serious towards fulfilling the psychological needs of the employees that were quit related to work practices. So if the HR management in relation of development, training & career of the employees would have done the serious and sincere efforts, this dispute could be avoided.

CONCLUSION

From the above discussion it is quit clear that the industrial dispute that rock the world could be avoided. Despite a number of third parties involved in the dispute, the main players in the dispute were the employer, Patrick Stevedores and the employees of the employer. If the appropriate HR management practices were employed by the management at that time, it is possible that instead of talking about dispute we would have been discussing about the waterfront reform by the HR managers. However some key management practice which could be useful to avoid the dispute were

1) Managing change, ) Handling Workplace Grievances And Disciplining Employees,

) Development, Training & Career. If the management of Patrick Stevedores would have been used appropriate measures to motivate their employees, and if it would have been successful in giving them full job satisfaction, the waterfront dispute would not happened.

References

Books &Articles

De Cieri, Kramar et al (00) Human Resource Management in Australia, McGraw Hill, Sydney.

Deery S, Plowman D, Walsh J, Brown M (00) Industrial Relation A Contemporary Analysis, nd edition.

Tom Sheridan, The 18 Australian Waterfront Dispute In its Historical Context, International Employment Relations Review, Vol 5, No. , 1.

Barbara Pocock, Success in Defence Union Strategy and the 18 Maritime Dispute, International Employment Relations Review, Vol 5, No. , 1.

Gerard G, & Stuart S, Industrial Relation and 18 Waterfront Dispute, International Employment Relations Review, Vol 5, No. , 1.

Web sites visited

http//www.ogc.gov.uk/sdtoolkit/reference/deliverylifecycle/impplans/manag_change.html

http//members.aol.com/AllenWeb/change.htm

http//www.themanager.org/Strategy/Change_Phases.htm

http//management.about.com/library/weekly/aa00.htm

http//www.intelligo.ie/newsletter/February/hrmanagers.htm

http//www.hrworld.com/

http//www.eeo.nsw.gov.au/employee/grievanc.htm

http//www.scope4u.com/grievance.asp#6

http//www.acci.asn.au/text_files/issues_papers/Waterfront_Reform/WR0.pdf

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Porters five forces model

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Proters 5 forces and macintosh

Introduction To perform the Industry Analysis it is better to follow Michael Porters five forces model. This analysis framework was created so that it helps managers in their task to analyze competitive forces to the company. (Hill & Jones 80) This model is only one of the models that can be used for this task but it is one of the more popular models. The five forces that we will have to look at for this model are (1) the risk of new and potential competitors; () the bargaining power of suppliers; () the threat of substitute products; (4) the bargaining power of buyers; and (5) the degree of rivalry among established companies within an industry. (Hill & Jones 80) Barriers to Entry The first force in Porters Five Forces Model is Entry Barriers. These factors are those that make it harder or easier for another company to enter into the industry. High barriers to entry will keep potential competitors out of the industry and low barriers to entry will give an opening for competitors to enter into the industry if the industry returns are high enough. (Hill & Jones 8) The fewer competitors in an industry the more the existing companies can take advantage of higher prices and better returns. One barrier to entry is brand loyalty. Brand loyalty is very important for the sales of IBM. When personal computers first came out you had to choose from IBM or Apple. Both computers were great machines but when IBM became a better-known computer the name was very recognizable. Today your choice in computers is much more extensive. Even though there are many more brands to choose from IBM is still a popular name. If not for its own products it is for their platform it has. IBM compatible is a widely used term when talking about computers. Many people when looking for a new notebook computer will then think about the name first. You may think well if the other computers are compatible then why not just get something that is cheaper? This is an option but the other way of looking at it is the name brand will be a better product. A second barrier to entry is switching costs. When IBM and Apple were the only computer systems to choose from people had to make a choice. When you went to buy one system then you had to buy all the software that went along with that system. Ultimately, IBM became the more popular system and there was more software produced for IBM computers rather than Apple. (Hill & Jones 105) So now when consumers are searching for notebook computer that will help you out in the new work environment you are more likely to stay with the brand that they picked originally or another brand that is compatible to that system. Since IBM became the more popular computer to start with, switching cost became much higher if you wanted to switch to a Macintosh, an Apple operating system. All the software that you owned for the IBM computer would be useless for an Apple computer. That means along with purchasing the new computer itself you would also have to repurchase all the software that you had on the old computer in the new Macintosh format. Also the two computers work slightly different, so you may have to take a class or two to help you understand how to work this new computer that you purchased. Overall that is much more money then it would be just to buy another computer compatible with the same system that you already own. A third barrier to entry is one of imitation and absolute cost advantages. This is were IBM has lost its advantage. IBM has created a computer that is very open for imitation. There are many different computers that are compatible to the IBM format. Each new company that has entered the market has realized that IBM had the more popular system and then tried to copy it. These new companies were producing very similar computers at the same cost but charging less. (Hill & Jones 07) This in turn caused IBM to loose their advantage over new competitors. However when IBM went into the notebook computer industry it became innovative and produced computers that were similar to their normal PC. They offered many features that most companies could not put on their laptop because of lack of room. IBM also is able to make one of the smallest and lightest notebook computers. The ThinkPad 560 comes with a 100-MHz Pentium processor, 8MB of RAM and 810MB hard drive also with an 11.-inch screen. This is all packed into a package that is 1. inches thick and about to 6 pounds, depending on your attachment setup. The best features that many like about this version are there is a full size keyboard and screen. It can be hooked up to other hardware or connected to a PC, network or printer. (www.cnet.com) Most other competitors cannot come and make a notebook computer at that weight with so many of the features that IBM is offering. Bargaining Power of Suppliers The second of Porters competitive forces is the bargaining power of suppliers. Suppliers can become severe threats to any company when the business depends on them for their products, but the supplier does not depend on the company for business. Suppliers are a threat when they are able to force up the price that a company must pay for its inputs or reduce the quality of inputs they supply, therefore depressing the companys profitability. If suppliers are weak, this gives a company the opportunity to force down prices and demand higher input quality (Hill & Jones, 001). IBM has numerous amounts of suppliers for their laptop computers. A major supplier is Intel, the worlds largest manufacturer of microprocessors. The industry standard for computers runs on Intels microprocessor family such as the Pentium series microprocessors. IBM has little choice but to use an Intel microprocessor for their laptops. Intel currently possesses about 85 percent of the market so they have supplier power over IBM. This puts Intel in a very powerful position in this situation. There are very few substitutes for Intels microprocessor, so IBM has little choice but to deal with Intel. Intel has the ability to raise prices to any level that satisfies them. This level would not prevail in a highly competitive market for microprocessors (Hill & Jones, 001). IBM does set some standards for its suppliers however. Once suppliers enter into a contract with IBM, they must follow specific instructions given to them. These instructions include document requirements (eg packaging list, billing invoices, etc.), packaging and labeling requirements, shipping instructions, and even country of origin marking (See Appendix A). IBM also has instructions for exports to IBM corporations in the United States (www.ibm.com). Suppliers to IBM are also instructed to use IBMs global procurement system. With the use of Electronic Data Interchange (EDI), business transactions can easily flow electronically between IBM and suppliers. Through IBMs EDI services, forms exchange has now evolved. Suppliers can receive electronic purchase orders from IBM procurement and automatically generate an invoice from it. This method of sending invoices electronically utilizing web technology will speed up the invoicing process while reducing the use of paper at the same time. The forms exchange service translates web data into standard EDI format and transfers these messages to and from IBM Information Exchange mailbox. Communication can be made more efficiently and accurately between IBM and its suppliers (www.ibm.com). Substitute Products The third force in Porters model is the threat of substitute products. Substitute products can be any products that companies offer to consumers. These substitutes provide needs to the consumer that are similar to the needs served by the industry being analyzed. The existence of close substitutes presents a strong competitive threat to a company. This in turn limits the price that the company can charge for their product and thus profitability is also negatively affected. On the other hand, if a companys products have few close substitutes, then this company has a better opportunity of gaining more profits due to the ability of raising prices. The company does not have to worry about customers switching to other products. Companies that are not threatened by substitutes should indeed take advantage of such a situation (Hill & Jones, 001). In the case of IBMs laptop computers, the threat of substitute products is extremely minimal. Since laptops provide an efficient means for mobile computing, there is no other true mechanism that poses as a substitute except for possibly a palm pilot or even nowadays cell phones. Newer technologies are enabling products such as these to perform certain jobs that laptops do. Examples are containing Internet access features, e-mail capabilities, personal organization, etc. These products can also be easily moved along with the consumer. However, these items do not utilize the capabilities of data processing, or other means that laptops possess. Typewriters, Word Processors, and Personal Computers are the closest substitutes to laptop computers regardless of their portable inabilities. With typewriters, the printing is done through an inked ribbon that is fitted on spools, and travels with the operation of the machine. It then reverses automatically when one spool becomes completely unwound. Electronic typewriters are basically manual typewriters with the typing strokes powered by an electronic motor drive (www.britannica.com). Word processors use application programs for manipulating text-based documents. They are the electronic equivalent of the paper, pen, typewriter, eraser, dictionary and thesaurus. Depending on the program and the equipment in use, word processors can display documents either in text mode using highlighting, underlining, and color to represent italics, or boldfacing and other such formatting. In the graphics mode, fonts can appear on the screen as they will on the printed page. Some word processors can also check spelling, find synonyms, incorporate graphics created with another program, correctly align mathematical formulas, create and print letters, perform calculations, display documents in multiple on-screen windows, and also enable users to record macros that simplify difficult operations (www.msn.encarta.com). One major manufacturer of typewriters and word processors is Brother. The Personal Computer (PC) or desktop, is a machine capable of repetitively and quickly performing calculations and instructions. Its Design is to be used by a single person; a PC is smaller, less expensive and easier to use than other classes of computers, such as supercomputers, mainframe computers, or workstations. However, it usually has less computational power (www.msn.encarta.com). PCs can most likely be found within office environments, schools, and homes. Along with typewriters and word processors, their prices are far less than laptops as well. As stated earlier, these products can be considered substitutes for laptop computers if a consumer is no longer striving for the portable qualities of laptops. The word processor, typewriter, and PC can all perform similar functions of a laptop, but for traveling, they are surely not recommended. Buyer Power The fourth force of Porters model is bargaining power of buyers. There are many different levels of buyers. Two different levels would be the store that you sell your product to and the other level would be the ultimate consumer. When a buyer can demand certain things from the company then that would give them power. This is a threat to the companys profits when they have achieved a great amount of power. IBM has limited the buyers power by reducing the amount of levels of buyers. IBM sells a majority of their notebook computers off their corporate website. The buyers of notebook computers are becoming more empowered because of the use of the Internet. There have been several companies that have entered the notebook computer business by offering custom-built computers over the Internet. These companies offer that they will make a custom computer to the specifics that you need. IBM did not choose to pursue this route. Instead of making their notebook computer custom built to the customer order IBM has chosen to just make a wide variety of computers. IBM has about 10 different notebook computers and one of them has to fit the customers requirements. Therefore this shows that IBM does not have as much influence by the buyer as does many of its competitors. This reduces the cost for IBM because they do not need someone always figuring out the specific needs of a customer and putting a computer together at that point in time that will fit those needs. IBM only has to ship the notebook computer that the customer ordered. Nobody knows the customer better then the customer and he is the one that picks out the computer he wants. Competitors The last of the forces in Porters model is the intensity of competition. If the competition is low then the dominant company will be able to raise prices and earn greater profits. But when the competition is high like it is in the computer market then there is a price war where prices have to be competitive to your competitors or you will have low market share and smaller profits. (Hill & Jones 84) Computers are the worlds most innovative product. Whether youre having your groceries scanned at the local supermarket, reading your e-mail messages through a portable phone, or traveling through E-Z pass toll booths, computers are an every and all day occurrence in everyones life. From the beginning of the computer industry, IBM has led the way and set standards in the computer market today. From computer mainframes to lb. laptops, IBM next to Apple has maintained its supremacy. Aside from Apple, other competitors have emerged into the computer market. Hewlett Packard and Compaq are two primary competitors in IBMs market sector dealing with laptops today. Since the dawn of the computer era IBM has held its position at the top of the computer industry. Being that IBM has maintained its credibility, it has held its position in the computer world with a lot of market power. This was the case up until about ten years ago. That was when its suppliers broadened their distribution lines and created a larger market for computers. This is a time when IBM needed to implement new computer strategies. The early 80s is when it took hold of the laptop industry. Realizing that what its strategy needed was to be very competitive with its competitors, IBM increased its research and development strategies to achieve its superb Laptop technology. (Research Insight) This was a dawn of a new era for portable computers. Apple computer industry was already competing in the market of computers, so along with Compaq and Hewlett-Packard these three companies posed threat and competition to IBM. After going through and analyzing the income statements between these three companies. You can notice a decline in Apple and IBMs revenues over the past ten years. For Apple computer industry its gross profit has declined form . billion dollars in 11 to 1.7 billion in 1 a 4%decline in revenue for Apple and IBM went from 4 billion in 11 to 8 billion in 1 a 4% decline in revenue. (Research Insight) On the other hand due to computer competition since 1 and the introduction of new competitors and lower barriers of entry into the computer market, other companies have stolen market share from Apple and IBM. Hewlett Packard and Compaq, revenues have increased by 107% and 714% respectfully over the past ten years. By research in http//www.computer-village.com.html you can come to find that this has taken place due to competitive advantages in R & D within these opposing companies. Once youve conducted a check into the components of laptop computers, you will notice most laptops use similar products within the computer make up, Microsoft and Intel being the two biggest suppliers of programs and hardware to computer production. Many of the main components that go into laptop computers are alike among competition. As you compare IBM, Compaq, Hewlett Packard, and Apple you will notice a lot of hardware similarities. For instance, all but Apple uses the Pentium III processor (www.insite.com/computer comparison) where Apple uses there own processor called PowerPC G4. (http//www.apple.com) Along with Apple, most Laptops offer different systems to be installed depending on customers needs for the computer. (www.insite.com) For instance, whether the customer wants a laptop for business purposes, advertising and marketing, or video enjoyment they get their pick as to what computer will best suit their need. The first and most important decision youll make when buying a new computer system is whether to choose a Windows Laptop or an Apple Power book. The decision isnt as easy as it used to be. With the introduction of the low-priced, consumer-oriented Power book and an updated version of the operating system, Apple is on the rebound in both power and price. If you are looking for a computer that is easy to set up and easy to use you can find the Power book to give you the least amount of difficulties. You can find through www.insite.com that Apple laptops have superb graphics and imaging along with superb Internet capabilities such as connection time. As for Compaq and Hewlett Packard, and their Laptops, you may have a bit more difficulty of operating. For home and small-business use, a Windows PC, whether it is an IBM, Compaq, or Hewlett Packard, is generally the safest and less expensive than most laptops one can find. Another benefit is Windows software and add-on hardware are more plentiful, generally less expensive, and easier to find than Apple products. Distribution of laptops also plays a role in the amount of sales a company can expect. Hewlett Packard and Compaq laptops are basically available to the general public through diverse distribution channels such as Catalogs, through the Internet, from a computer store, or a computer expo whereas IBM and Apple both conduct sales through their web sites. This alone has been a major impact on the revenue differences. As we have looked into the Laptop industry we have noticed that IBMs competitors have somewhat taken market share away from IBM due to an increase in the compatibility among its products. Whether you want a laptop with mega memory and great graphics or high power and good Business programs, you must make a choice between many offers in your laptop selection. Because of the dramatic increases in the laptop market IBM has seen some declines in sales yet they havent taken as hard of a hit over the past ten years as Apple computers have. Because of IBMs high ratings in the computer production market, their competition has had a battle in itself to make up for losses in sales and production due to the current success level of IBM. (Research Insight) From our research we have found that IBM and Apple, who were once the leaders in the computer industries have taken pretty sharp cutbacks in production and prices to stay in competition with the rest of their competitors. Conclusion Each of these forces in Porters Five Forces model are all connected in some way. The stronger each force is the more the industry in which the company is in is competitive. When an industry is more competitive this leads to lower prices due to price wars and ultimately lower rate of return. One of the limitations to this way of looking at industry analysis is that the Five Forces model looks at an industry as a whole instead of each individual company

Please note that this sample paper on porters five forces model is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on porters five forces model, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on porters five forces model will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Trytr

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Body regions

Head

Neck

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Trunk

Chest

Abdomen

Pelvis

Extremities

Each region has a bony skeleton attached. Which will have muscle attachment, which permits movement.

Body cavities

1. Dorsal cavity-

Framework Cranium, vertebrae

Contents brain, spinal cord

. Thoracic cavity-

Framework ribs, sternum, thoracic vertebrae, diaphragm

Contents heart, lungs, pleura, thymus, esophagus, trachea, bronchi, major vesicles

. Abdominal cavity-

Framework diaphragm, lumbar vertebrae, abdominal muscle.

Contents stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, spleen, aorta, venacavias

4. Pelvic cavity- framework pelvic bones, sacrum, and abdominal muscles. Contents Kidneys, bladder, ovaries, uterus, vagina, testicles not dropped, colon, rectum, anus

Structural units of the body

Cell the smallest functional unit of the body

Tissue - Collection of cells having similar functions and structure

Organ - Collection of tissues having similar functions and structure

Systems- group of organs having similar functions and structure

Organism collection of systems, which work together to sustain the independent functioning of the total individual

About the cell

Protoplasum- living substance within the cell. Can be organic or inorganic

Organic materials- chemicals made of carbon. Example protein, fats, carbohydrates

Inorganic materials- chemicals other than carbon. Example water, salts, gases

Electrolytes- salt compounds

Ion's- electrolytes that have been separated in a solution. Carry an electrical charge

Nucleus- control center of the cell. Contains chromosomes

Chromosomes- Made of DNA. Contains the hereditary traits

Nucleolus- pacemaker of the cell

Cytoplasm - contests of the cell other than the nucleolus. Manufactures RNA and other proteins

Organelle- small structures in the cytoplasm that carries on a specific function

Types of Mitochondria powerhouse Produces energy and ATP

Endoplasmic reticulum- produces and transports RNA and sterile hormone Ribosomes- produces RNA and other proteins

Golgi apparatus- manufactures glandurol secretions

Centrioles- per cell. Located near the nucleus and active during cell division

Enclusion bodies

Lysosomes- granules containing digestive enzymes

Pigments- melanin (black), hemoglobin (red), bill Rubin (yellow)

Glycogen- starch molicus. Found in liver and muscle cells

Lipids- fat globules

Mucus- sticky substance, protects the passages of the body that open to the outside

Cell membrane Also called plasma membrane. Its function is selective permeability (only allow certain things in the cell and out of the cell) composed of organic molecules that constantly change shape and chemically interact with other molecules.

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Cellular Physiology methods of moving substances through the cell membrane

Diffusion- movement of a substance through the cell membrane in either direction depending on the concentration of that substance on each side of the membrane. The movement occurs from the side of higher concentration towards the side of lower concentration until equilibrium is reached. Example oxygen, carbon dioxide

Osmosis- (selective diffusion) solution involved is water. The salute involved is glucose or salts. Allows movement from a region of low salute to a region of high salute through a membrane. Permeable only to water.

Osmotic pressure will result from a difference in concentration on either side of the membrane.

Isotonic equal osmotic pressure

Hypertonic- intercellular pressure (outside cell) is greater than intracellular. CELL WILL SHRINK AND DRAW FLUID OUT.

Hypotonic- Intracellular pressure is greater than intercellular. CELL WILL SWELL AND BURST

Active transport- substances are moved through a membrane from a low concentration to a high concentration. Requires energy to perform the process. Example electrolytes balances

Filtration- processes that pushes water and substances from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure through a membrane. Responsible for the fluid between the cells. Blood pressure causes this process. How the kidney works

Sodium (NA++) and potassium(K) pump- movement of sodium and potassium enzymes from a low concentration to a high concentration. This requires energy. VERY IMPORTANT in maintaining osmotic pressure.

Bulk transport-

Phagocytosis. Cell membrane surrounds an external particle and encloses it within a vacuole and the enzymes from the lysosomes digest it.

Pinalcytosis- similar to phagocytosis except it intakes liquids. Cellular physiology

Tissues

Epithelial-

Char 1) covers all body surfaces

) mostly cellular

) lacks blood vessels

4) protects underlined structures

5) has cells capable of secretions group of these cells are call GLANDS

6) sensitive to sensory stimulation

7) some of the cells are ciliated.

Types 1) Simple squamos- single layer thick, lines internal organs, secretes a cerus fluid and facilitates diffusion and filtration.

) Simple cuboidal - cube shaped, single layer thick. Secretes hormones and is found in the thyroid and ovaries

) Simple columnar- single layer of tall cells, contain goblet cells, which secretes mucus. Found in the lining of the small intestines. Func is absorption and secretion

4) Pseudostratified columnar- hair growing from the cells. Has goblet cells. Found in the nose, trachea, and bronchi. Simulation of the cilia causes coughing and sneezing

5) Stratified squamas- most common type. Several layers of epithelial cells. Can be karentinised or non-karentinised this forms a waterproof protective covering. Found in the epidermis and the interlining of the mouth

6) Stratified columnar several layers of tall cells. Found in the respitory system and the male reproductive system

7) Transitional comes from the bladder. Can change shape when pulled or stretched

Connective tissue (CT)-

Char 1) found throughout body

) gives body support as a whole.

) Connects two organs together.

4) Secretes a matrix which is an intercellular substance that fills the spaces between the cells.

5) Encapleates certain organs (kidneys)

6) Has a rich supply of blood vessels.

7) It protects delicate organs with fatty deposits

8) It's a storehouse for fats.

Types 1) Adipose - fat cells under skin and around body organs, Func reserve food supply, insulation, and shock absorption.

) Areolar found in subcutaneous tissues, it contains fibrasites which secretes collagen, macrophases which carry out phagocytosis, massed cells which contains histamine causing flamatory process, heparin and plasma cells, the plasma cells contain antibodies.

) White fibers - tendons and ligaments which contains collagen

4) Yellow fibers - elastic fibers found in subcutaneous tissue and gives elasticity to the body.

5) Hyaline Cartilage hard and smooth, made of collagen. It covers joint surfaces and gives firm but flexible support

6) Fibrous cartilage flexible and moveable it is found in the nose, ears, trachea and intervertrable disks

7) Blood- aka wandering connective tissue, cells floating matrix. Made in the bone marrow and it distributes nutrients throughout body.

8)Bone it is made of ostiocytes (bone cells) which secretes a fibrous matrix where the salts of calcium, phosphorous and magnesium are stored. This is what makes the bone hard. Bones provide support and protection for the body.

Char

compact bone- it is very hard, found in shaft of long bones and the outer covering of other bones and it secretes a matrix of concentric circles (rings in a tree)

spongy bone- aka cancelous bone, it contains spaciules which are needle shaped bone fragments and trabeculae which is fibrous cords of ct. This forms a mesh work of bone that fills the ends of long bones and the interior of flat and irregular bones, this keeps the bones lightweight and strong. It is arranged to absorb shock and stress(webbing)

Periosteum- a fiborous membrane covering outer surface of the bones, it secretes ostioblasts during fracture repair and can increase or decrease in size depending on the activity of the individual.

Epiphysis- growth center of bone. It is found on the ends of long bones and in the center of other bones.

Medulary cavity red marrow, makes red blood cells granulocytes (group of white blood cells) and platelets(clotting cells) This is found in all bones until maturity and after maturity only on flat irregular bones(ribs) Yellow marrow, this replaces red marrow in long bones. It is composed of ataposed tissue and is a reserve source of energy.

Articular cartilage- made of hyaline cartilage and covers ends of long bones to reduce friction.

Types of bones

1) long bones found in extremities.

) short bones( carpals and tarsals)

) irregular bones(vertebrae)

4) 4 flat bones (ribs, sternum, scapula, skull, pelvis)

Fracture Repair (Osteogenisous)

Stage 1 = Procallus where hemorrhaging leads to a clot.

Stage = Callus- granulation tissue forms between the pieces of the bone.

Stage = bony callus- periosteum secretes ostoblasts into the callus and secretes a matrix. OSSIFICATION is formed, which is minerals within the matrix that causes bone to harden. Osteoclasts are secreted to reshape the jagged edges of the damaged bone (bone sculpture cells).

Stage 4 = facture healed

Nervous

Char

1) Coordination center of the body

) Stimulus can only travel in one direction along a nerve

) Nerve fibers join together at a synapse(space)

4) Control center(brain and spinal cord) that is nervous tissue

Muscle

Char

1) Contracts when stimulated. Func enables movement

) Maintains posture against gravity

) Helps vital body functions (example digestion, heartbeat, and breathing)

Types

1) Skeletal- striated, voluntary controlled, some reflex action, muscles connect to bone by tendons and the attachment crosses for a joint

) Smooth muscle- nonstriated, involuntary controlled, controlled by the ANS(autonomic nervous system), found in digestive organs

) Cardiac tissue- striated, involuntary controlled, fibers are interconnected, when one fiber contracts the contraction is spread to all other fibers. Found only in the heart

04/11/0

Blood- (wandering ct)

Char

Blood volume

1) Vary according to species, body weight and age

) Maintains the PH of the body within normal ranges, (normal PH of blood = 7.5- 7.45) ) Acts as a transportation system for food, oxygen(O), carbon dioxide (C0), waste products, heat, hormones, enzymes.

4) Protects the body against antigens(anything foreign to the body) does this by carrying antibodies.

Parts of blood

Plasma- liquid portion of the blood that contains clotting factors. Makes up 55% 65% of the total blood volume. 0% is water, 10% is proteins, nutrients, electrolytes, gases, hormones and enzymes.

Types of protein in plasma

Fibrinogen- made by the liver, requires vitamin K and functions in the clotting process.

Prothrombin- made by the liver, requires vitamin K and functions in the clotting process

Albumin- most prevalent draws fluid from the tissues into the vessels

Globulin- forms, alpha and beta transports fats and fat soluble vitamins, Gamma- functions as antibodies of immunity (all of these are made from plasma cells, made in the spleen and lymph notes

Serum liquid portion of the blood(doesn't have clotting factors), draw blood allow blood to clot spine down and liquid portion of the mixture is cerium.

Cells 5% - 45% of the total blood volume.

Char

1) # from 5 7 million per cubic mm

) Size vary with species and measures in micro's and diameters

) Shape(biconcave disk) does not have a nucleus except birds, reptiles and fish

4) HGB (hemoglobin) contains within the red blood cell. Gives the red blood cell it's color. Loves o. enjoys carbon monoxide more(co),

5) Made in the bone marrow, made in all bones before maturity and only in flat and irregular bones after maturity

6) Function carries oxygen from the lungs to all body parts, carries carbon dioxide from the body to the lungs

7) Life span 4 months. The spleen will fragment the old cells and save the hemoglobin for the new cells

8)Anemia causes. To little hemoglobin, to few cells (mainly animals)

Types RBC (red blood cells, aka Erythrocytes)

WBC (White blood cells)

Leukocytes

1) 5,000 10,000 cubic mm but can go as high as 15,000 if the animal is stressed or excited during blood draw.

) Contain a nucleus

) Larger than red blood cells

4) Their spirifical in shape

5)func some produce and carry antibodies, some carry out phagocytosis, some crawl through capillary walls into tissue spaces ( called diaheapedecyst)

Types of white cells

Granularcytes- formed in the bone marrow, cytoplasm contains granuals, nuclear segments as cell ages, life span appx. 1 hours. Twice the size of a red blood cell

A. Neutrophils most numerous, they number from 60% - 70%, they stay in blood appx. 10 hours, they increase with bacterial infections, attracted to the site of infection by chemotaxois, travel through dyopedicyst, they care out phagocytosis, decrease with viral infections

B. Eosinophils- number from 1% - %, increase with allergic responses and parasitic infections

C. Basophils- number from ½ to 1%, they are occasionally seen with allergies, they secrete heparin which helps prevent blood clotting, secrete histamine which increases blood flow to the tissues

Agranularcytes (nongranularcytes)- formed in the bone marrow and the organ of the lymphatic system. The cytoplasm does not contain granules.

A. Lymphocytes- smallest white blood cell, they will number from 5% 5%, they increase to the response of viral infections, they carry antibodies on the surface of the cell membrane, the cytoplasm shrinks with age making the cell become mostly nucleus, life span may expand for many years.

B. Monocytes- number from % 8%, nucleus and cytoplasm contain vacuals, they will increase with chronic infections, they undergo dyopedicyst and phagocytosis, they circulate in the blood appx. 4 hours, live span several weeks to months

Platelets (thrombocytes) no complete cells, come from a giant cell called MEGAKARYOCYTES, made in the bone marrow, MEGAKARYOCYTES releases cytoplasmic fragments and as the fragments detach an intercirculation the smaller fragments become platelets and as they pass through the vessels of the lungs the larger fragments break down to produce more platelets.

Clotting mechanism Always found in the blood

• Platelets break apart due to rough edges in vessel

• Releasing platelet factors

• Prothrombin --) Ca+ @ platelet factors --) thrombin

• Fibrinogen --) thrombin --) fibrin (clot)

Stationary blood clot = Thrombus

Moving blood clot = embolus

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Membranes

Char

Combination of or more tissues

Covers and lines body cavities

Divides organs into sections

Types

Serous- secretes a thin watery fluid, reduces friction between the organs, joints and enclosed cavities.

Synovial- thick fluid in the joint spaces, reduces friction

Fascia- does not secrete, supports and retains structures and surrounds muscle bundles

Sclera- outer white layer of the eyeball and protects the deeper structures of the eye

Dermaoter- outer covering of the brain and spinal cord, protects the delicate nervous tissue below

Integumentary system (skin)

Structures

Epidermis- outer layer of epidermis is dead keratinized cells,

Germinal layer- area under the outer layer, living cells that undergo mitosis, replaces the cells that are continuously lost in the outer layer

Pigment color

Dermis- composed of a fibroelastic CT, considered the true skin, firmly connected to the epidermis and loosely connected to the subcutaneous tissues below, good capillary blood supply

Papilary layer- below the germinal layer, origin of ridges and valleys (example fingerprints)

Reticulary layer below the papillary layer, made of dense CT and elastic fibers, makes the skin stretch, contains nerve endings

Subcutis- composed of adiposed and lose CT, loosely attaches to the skin and underline tissues and structures, adiposed is good insulation

Glands of the skin-

Sudoriferous (sweat glands) - secretes a watery fluid, contains salts and waste products of metabolism, cools the skin by evaporation, found in pads of feet on dogs and cats,

Sebaceous gland (oil glands) open into the hair follicles, secretions lubricate the hair and skin, secretion is called SEBUM, if accumulates will cause blackheads or cyst

Anal sacks (scent glands) () located at 400 and 800 around the anus, secretion has a strong odor,

Tarsal gland secretes and oily secretion along the edge of the eyelid, prevents tear secretions from overflowing the eyelids

Ceruminous gland- found in the ear canal, secretes and waxy material

Projections from the skin (claws, hoofs, fingernails)

Germinal layer - located and the root of claw or nail, has good supply and contains nerve endings

Hair follicle originates in the dermis, consists of a bulb(root) and shaft, bulb is buried deep into the hair follicle, each follicle has a tiny muscle attached,

Arrector pili - muscle controlled by the sympathetic nerves, contraction of this muscle causes hair to stand up

Alopecia (hair loss)

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Green Saint or Eco-sinner. a crical analysis of ecotourism

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GREEN SAINT OR ECO-SINNER? A CRITCAL ANALYSIS OF ECOTOURISM.

There exists a global struggle. Growing numbers of citizens organisations and movements in both the South and the North are fighting against the current system of globalisation, a system which they claim serves to strengthen the power of big corporations whilst obstructing efforts to create a socially just and ecologically sustainable world. The corporate tourism industry, along with television is one of the most potent agents of this globalisation and has been labelled "one of the most powerful driving forces towards progressive liberalization of the global economy that creates far more winners than losers." Clear evidence exists that tourism is considerably contributing to the deepening crisis of poverty and debt, environmental degradation as well as human rights abuses. However, according to its commercial practitioners, ecotourism is the antidote to the aforementioned ills that mass tourism creates. Ecotour operators work with local people to conserve fragile ecosystems, support endangered species and habitats, preserve indigenous cultures and develop sustainable local economies. It is the purpose of this study to critically analyse this ecotourism, asking questions like, for example; whether it can successfully be used as a tool for conservation and sustainable development? In addition, what are the effects on these targeted areas and moreover, whose interests does ecotourism actually serve? Is just another ‘greenwash' by big business in an unfair international system? It is important to note that these issues are interlinked and tend to overlap.

The first point at which ecotourism can be criticised arrives when simply trying to define it. In its simplest form, ecotourism is nature travel. In its more advanced form, ecotourism encompasses all aspects of life wildlife, plants, biodiversity, sustainable economies, conservation, heritage etc… So at it's purest, ecotourism is a kinder, more gentle form of environmentalism that recognises humans as part of the ecosystem. This is a critical difference; it affects how tour operators, conservationalists and tourists interact with the host destination and also illustrates the problem that throughout the industry there remains no agreed upon definition, nor international standards that tourists and operators must follow. This, as will be highlighted later, leaves much room for greenwash, spin and exploitation for the sake of profit. In theory, ecotourism could be defined as "an enlightening nature travel experience that contributes to conservation of the ecosystem, whilst respecting the integrity of host communities." However, in practice, a more truthful definition could describe ecotourism as "an economic process where rare and beautiful ecosystems are marketed internationally to attract tourists."

Fundamentally then, we can see that two views prevail. One sees that public interest in the environment can be used to market a product, whilst the other suggests that this same interest may be used to conserve the resources upon which this product is based. In order for an ecotour to be a success it needs an effective integration of both views, so that both the industry and the resource can be sustained over the long term. This is a key issue in analysing ecotourism. The question must be posed, ‘can ecotourism be successfully used as a tool for sustainable development?'

Write your Green Saint or Eco-sinner. a crical analysis of ecotourism research paper

Sustainable development according to the Brundtland commission report is "development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet there own needs." According to Pamela Wight ecotourism can be sustainable as long as it accepts some key principles

• It should not degrade the resource and should be developed in an environmentally sound manner.

• It should involve education among all parties local communities, government, NGOs, industry and tourists (before, during and after the trip)

• It promote understanding and should involve partnerships between many players (including those stated above)

• It should provide long term benefits to the resource, to the local community, and to the industry. (scientific, cultural, social and economic)

So, are there any examples of such criteria being met? Erlet Cater and Gwen Lowman provide instances of such success, as in Zimbabwe the Nyaminyami wildlife park generated a 450 per cent increase in revenue earned from the introduction of sustainable wildlife activities. $500 000 was distributed to local villages with nearly all funds being invested in community projects which included the provision of a reliable water supply and the establishment of grinding mills. It is true that the major role players in tourism all have a stake in sustainable tourism and that their future interests are dependent on sound environmental practice. However, the same two authors also offer the analysis that "given the multitude of interests involved, a completely sustainable outcome is more likely to remain more of an ideal than a reality." There are hardly ever any ‘win-win' scenarios where positive links between the environment and development equate to conservation and income growth. (See Appendix i )

Conversely, the champions of ecotourism claim such successes to be frequent. 00 was designated the International Year of Ecotourism (IYE) by the UN and was aggressively marketed as a celebration of ecotourism's role in facilitating sustainable development. Yet many critics saw this celebratory tone as inappropriate due to the growing evidence of failed projects and disturbed communities and ecosystems. Even the World Bank, which has been promoting ecotourism development for about a decade, has published studies that suggest few if any ecotourism projects have actually generated substantial income for the parks they are intended to protect, much less the people living near them. In addition, tourism marketing men claim that ecotourism leads to a greater distribution of wealth and an increase in living standards when there is local community involvement. However, Mexican economist David Barkin counters this by stating, that even when not run by outsiders, the economic benefits of ecotourism can be limited. He argues that local elites are usually in the best economic and political position to benefit by development and moreover, he suggests that these projects do not support the broader regeneration of community based economies and self sufficiency, which are key factors for local sustainability. This directly goes against the criteria offered above by Pamela Wight. Worryingly, Barkin points to the fact that if local needs are not met or continue to be defined elsewhere, ecotourism projects can undermine local economic security, social relations and ecosystems. The reality of this has become apparent, as destination communities have suffered due to the drop in bookings post September 11th.

Despite this, promoters of the IYE such as the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) still assert that ecotourism can help eradicate poverty in the global south. However, as Anita Pleumarom of the Tourism Investigation and Monitoring Team suggests, the global south provides an experimental laboratory and self-serving target of investment for the development, NGO, and corporate interests driving the aid agenda. She argues that communities are deliberately not given enough information enabling it difficult for them to make informed decisions and commitments. The IYE did promise the distribution of ‘Ecotourism Information Kits', but as Deborah McLaren of the Rethinking Tourism Project states, such kits "promote a reductionistic approach…and they also promote the homogenisation of tourism experiences, as opposed to encouraging communities to engage actively with tourists on their own terms and in ways that bring tourists and locals to new understandings." So again, Pamela Wight' s check list would concur that sustainability is not being promoted, this time due to a lack of education and understanding between parties.

Amongst the negatives however, there do exist some positives. Robert G.Healy argues that through tourist merchandise, opportunities are offered to even the poorest participant in the local economy as they don't need immense capital to produce. Furthermore, rural societies have been successfully selling traditional products, modified products and entirely new ones altogether. Through this process, local craft traditions have been revitalised and in some areas new ones have been created reinforcing local identities. Healy states that tourist merchandise "offers the possibility of using local materials sustainably and even provides a new market for the output of local agriculture and forestry enterprises, specifically targeted towards resource protection." The potential then again exists for a ‘win-win' scenario, but in reality other factors can complicate the situation making it a ‘lose-win' with the environment suffering. This can happen due to a depletion of natural resources as inputs for such merchandise and furthermore, social tensions can be created when some members of the community benefit more than others from sales.(See Appendix i )

So in terms of sustainable development it is clear that there is clear potential for ecotourism to play a beneficial role, yet in the long term it seems as though all it is achieving is at a detrimental cost. The same can be said to be true for ecotourism's role in the conservation and the protection of the areas, environments and the indigenous peoples it targets. The uneven ecotourism development which takes place can be reflected directly in ecological degradation. Take for example the Monarch Butterfly Reserve in Michoacan, Mexico. Here, impoverished peasants continue to violate the reserve's ban on logging. This happens even though these peasants are aware of the importance of forest conservation. Why? It is because ecotourism development has failed to offer any meaningful economic opportunities or self sufficiency for the majority of people living there. Furthermore, when these lands are targeted for tourism, conditions can quickly undermine indigenous peoples' land claims and control over what and who comes out of these landscapes.

It would be false to suggest that the money generated by ecotourism projects has not been welcomed by indigenous communities, but on the whole, projects have tended to backfire, causing divisions or not generating the incomes they expected. What's more, ecotourism brings with it pressures to convert nature into exploitable resources, for example through the conversion of sacred sites into tourists attractions. This is a problem facing the Maasai in the Lolita Hills in Kenya who are being pressured to give up a sacred forest of biodiversity (Naimina-Enkiyio) in which they practice worship. In some cases, where this pressure has been combated there has been complaints of subterfuge. Commercially motivated bioprospectors have pretended to be ecotourists in order to sidestep local regulations and laws. As well as flora, wildlife is another factor that can be adversely affected by the incoming tourists. Ronda Green, an ecotour operator herself points to the obvious dangers of hand feeding and spotlighting and also suggests that through the arrival of humans, many species that we are unable to detect (such as Numbats) are forced to change their habitual regimes causing a disturbance to the ecosystem. She states, "We make promises for accreditation that we will not do activities that will unduly disturb wildlife, but these do not always translate easily into actual distances for each species, or indications that an animal is being affected."

Perhaps most often overlooked is the inescapable fact that an Eco-tourist is no different than any other tourist in that they consume non-renewable resources to arrive at their destinations. It could even be argued they do more damage, since the areas they visit are often the most remote and pristine. However, the link between jetting across the world, the contribution of jet travel to greenhouse gas concentrations, and the ecotourist experience are rarely made. As Susan Becken reports, the Ecotourism Summit (one of the main events in the IYE) was described by the World Tourism Organisation (WTO) as a huge success, involving delegates from 1 different countries. She then argues that the energy demand of the delegates' long distance travel to Quebec was obviously not taken into account. Therefore, this Summit was another example of good intentions resulting in negative environmental impacts. Becken remarkably highlights that the energy use of almost 0 terajoules (TJ) for air travel to the Summit could sustain 05 Nepali citizens, 4 World citizens or 0 Canadians! (See Appendix ii) Ecotourism has in fact been dubbed ‘Egotourism' by Ian Munt, who asserts that ecotourism is as much about confirming one's class identity, educational sophistication, disposable income and cultural capital as it is about visiting nature in far away places.

This ties in nicely to the next way in which ecotourism can be critically analysed by asking the question ‘Whose interests does it really serve?' There is a growing belief by critics that large nature conservation and ecotourism groups have colluded to lobby for the UN endorsement of ecotourism and now want to exploit it for self serving purposes. Benefits open to them could include; free promotion for their products and technical consulting services, or getting funding for their own projects. Anita Pleumarom again provides a useful insight when she states that for grass roots groups it is alarming that the organisations which are mandated to represent the concerns of the NGOs and Communities in the South targeted for development, such as TIES (The International Ecotourism Society), are in fact based in the North. A statement presented at the Convention of Biological Diversity in Nairobi, May 000, displays evidence of such anxiety, "large conservation and development organisations do not respect local people's rights.. several activities undertaken by the Ecotourism society do not respect the interests of indigenous peoples…and often threaten cultural and biological diversity"

More importantly, there is the question of whether these targeted peoples can actually say no to ecotourism. Debt-ridden Southern governments face huge pressures to generate foreign exchange for debt repayment purposes. Couple this with the already mentioned fact that national elites stand to gain economically from tourism development and it is clear that these governments are not in the best position to reject such projects, despite their obvious pit-falls. The ‘option' to choose is rare as the pattern and organisation of international tourism often results in a loss of sovereignty of these destination countries in terms of decision making. This situation is made worse by the fact that there is enthusiastic support and promotion of ecotourism by international lending agencies such as the World Bank. Moreover, despite government efforts to develop creditable policies to deal with tourism, their efforts are often undermined by external forces beyond their control. For example, a recent UNCTAD study showed that the outflow of foreign exchange generated by tourism can reach levels as high as 75 per cent.

Perhaps the best indicator to show who really stands to benefit from ecotourism promotion is probably the fact that one of the IYE's principal organisers was in fact the WTO - the world's major proponent of the liberalisation of tourism services. This would certainly have favoured multinational tourism corporations such as airlines and hotels with a financial stake in the reduction or elimination of trade barriers. Small scale ecotourism operators are concerned that the WTO's free trade stance can not only undermine governments, but also small operators who are not equipped to compete against such large multinationals. Such large tour operators offer ecotourism in name only and continue to fail in the improving the sustainable economy sector. This is where the industry is particularly deceptive because "it is almost completely controlled by large foreign companies based in rich tourist-generating countries, so a large proportion of tourist dollars either never reaches the developing host economies or inevitably flows out in the form of repatriated profits or other payments."

To conclude, Ecotourism is another ‘tragedy of the commons.' Its good intentions are only simply achievable in theory, especially when it examining its usage as a tool for sustainable development. There do, however, remain some examples of positive impacts of ecotourism, but these are small victories in a war which is ultimately being lost. From Indigenous communities to governments and from flora to wildlife, ecotourism has created more problems than solutions and despite the attempts of grass roots organisations to achieve greater and more effective monitoring of tourist activities it is clear that there is no place for a fairer and more sustainable tourism in a world under corporate rule. It could further be argued that any viable alternatives will never be able to thrive as long as there exists a globalized economy controlled by a minority who dictates its rules to local societies. Some say the premise offered of unspoilt nature and cultures where few people have gone before is simply a calculated move to entice those with higher incomes to cleanse their souls. There are ggod reasons though, why few people have gone to these places before; they are fragile, inhospitable places that do not easily support human life. These ecosystems are being ruined by what David Nicholson-Lord calls the shock troops of Western-style capitalism, tourists, who are distributing social and psychological viruses just as effectively as earlier colonists spread Smallpox and TB. Ecotourism is indeed an eco-sinner "destroying the very world it wishes us to see…whilst desperately trying to appear ecologically responsible."

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Becken,S (00) ‘The Energy Costs of the Ecotourism Summit in Quebec' Journal Of Sustainable Tourism Vol.10 No#5 00

Cater,E & Lowman,G (14) ‘Ecotourism A Sustainable Option?' Wiley

Endicott,M.L (17) ‘Towards Definition' 1th Nov www.green-travel.com/gtdef.htm

Barkin,D (16) ‘Ecotourism A Tool for Sustainable Development' www.planeta.com

Green,R (00) ‘The tour operator's dilemma Keeping the customer happy while not disturbing the wildlife' www.planeta.com

Healy,R.G (14) ‘Tourist Merchandise as a means of regenerating local benefits from Ecotourism'

Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Vol.1 No# 14

Kamauro,D (16) ‘Ecotourism Suicide or Development?' Voices From Africa #6 Sustainable Development.

McLaren,D (001) Letter to Oliver Hillel, www.twnside.org.sg/title/iye4.htm

Munt, I (14) ‘Ecotourism or Egotourism' Race and Class Vol.6 No#1

Nichloson-Lord,D (00) ‘World The Blight Of Ecotourism' June 1th www.corpwatch.org/news/PND.jsp?articleid=77

Pleumarom,A (001) ‘Do we need the international year of ecotourism?' www.twnside.org.sg/title/iye1.htm,

Pleumarom,A (001) ‘ Campaign On Corporate Power in Tourism (COCPIT)' www.twnside.org.sg/title/eco1.htm p1

Steel,P (1) ‘The economics of eco-tourism' In focus

Third World Network (001) ‘NGO Statement to Government Delegates at the UN' www.twnside.orgsg/title/eco4.htm

Wickers,D (1) ‘Whither Green?' Sunday Times, January 5th

Wight,P (1) ‘Ecotourism Ethics or Eco-Sell?' Journal of Travel Research, Vol No# Winter '.

Appendix

( i )

Cater,E & Lowman,G (14) ‘Ecotourism A Sustainable Option?' Wiley

Appendix

( ii )

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US trade barriers against China

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Cause of the disputes

The Bush administration accused China of a host of trade violations, including intellectual property theft and trade barriers.

Manufacturers complained about rampant piracy of intellectual property, forced transfer of technology from firms launching joint ventures in China, trade barriers and capital markets that are largely insulated from free-market pressures, Evans said.

Evans also announced the creation of a new Unfair Trade Practices Team inside the Commerce Department to address trade barriers that are costing American jobs, as well as two new posts - an assistant secretary for trade promotion and an assistant secretary for manufacturing.

The announcements made in September, 15th in Detroit followed a series of 0 round-table discussions his agency has held around the country examining problems in manufacturing, Since July 000, manufacturing companies have lost .7 million jobs.

During those meetings, no country raised more attention as a source of concern than China, Evans said.

He gave as one example the experience of the manufacturer of Wrigley chewing gum, which has a 70 percent share of the Chinese market. Evans said that a Wrigley official told him that the Chinese were violating the companys copyrights by selling pirated gum in the city of Guangzhou and had even gone so far as to copy the designs of the Wrigley distribution trucks and were now driving the same routes.

Thats not a pretty picture, said Evans, who accused the Chinese of failing to live up to commitments it made in December 001 when it joined the World Trade Organization. China said at the time that it would open up its distribution systems to foreign suppliers and allow foreign non-bank companies to offer auto loans to consumers in China.

Evans pledged that the Bush administration would aggressively target unfair trade practices wherever they occur. American manufacturers can compete against any countrys white collars and blue collars but we will not submit to competing against another countrys choke collars.

American manufacturers have complained that China is artificially keeping the Chinese currency undervalued by as much as 40 percent to make American products more expensive in China and other markets where U.S. goods compete against Chinese products.

Evans said the new Unfair Trade Practices Team would work within the departments International Trade Administration while a new assistant secretary for trade promotion would also serve as the director general of the agencys Foreign Commercial Service, which supplies U.S. embassies with Commerce officials whose job is to help American companies operate in various foreign countries.

Senator Joe Lieberman, a Democrat representing Connecticut, said the Bush administration was late in addressing the issue.?The Bush administrations attention to Chinas trade abuses is .5 million jobs late. Weve been hemorrhaging manufacturing jobs for the last 1/ years, he said.

Senator Charles Schumer, a Democrat representing New York, said the Bush administration should be supporting his legislation to impose across-the-board tariffs of 7.5 percent on Chinese imports to penalize the country for undervaluing its currency to gain competitive advantage against U.S. exports.

China has been a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) for almost two years, but is still dragging its heels on fulfilling its WTO commitments. If it were a smaller economy, some of Chinas transgressions could be tolerated, but when the worlds fourth largest trading nation ignores its obligations, Chinas trading partners ought to act.

Till now, one thing is clear Bush administrations action is based on the belief that China will not change its behavior unless it faces credible prospects of retaliation. Therefore, persuading China to comply with its WTO obligations will take a combination of economic leverage and diplomatic pressure.

US Trade Barriers against China Textile Export

Therefore, the Bush administration is promising to further the cause of free trade by putting up barriers to trade. The U.S. Department of Commerce announced on November 18th that, at the request of American textile manufacturers, it will limit imports of Chinese-made brassieres, sleepwear and knit fabrics. (Based on the Section 01-- the 174 Trade Act)

Trade advocates immediately decried the decision, but the administration argues that the quotas will only restrict the growth of imports. And Republicans from textile states have said that they would not support future trade agreements unless the administration agreed to protect the industry.

When the time comes to vote on trade measures, though, its hardly clear that lawmakers from textile states will be forthcoming with their support. And if the president gets in the habit of protecting the nations least competitive industries, his credibility in trade talks will suffer.

Thats a major problem at a time when the United States is negotiating with other Western Hemisphere nations over the terms of a proposed Free Trade Area of the Americas. Pushing other nations to knock down barriers while putting new ones up in the United States amounts to telling the world, Do as I say, not as I do.

But even if President Bushs newest anti-trade measure doesnt provoke a trade war with China, its still a discouraging step.

Trade barriers are bad news for New Orleans and other port cities, which benefit from a free flow of goods around the world. Imported steel is one of the most important products that move through the Port of New Orleans, and the effect of tariffs has been dreadful. Steel, which normally represents about 40 percent of the cargo passing through the port, now accounts for only 5 percent.

Because no Chinese textiles pass through the Port of New Orleans, the quotas wont be nearly as damaging to the metro area as the steel tariffs have been.

Even so -- and even if textile quotas do temporarily improve the health of the domestic industry -- the consequences outweigh any benefits. One researcher calculates that government restrictions on the textile trade cost the average family of three, $400 to $500 a year. Those higher prices explain why retailers are up in arms about the new textile quotas.

Textile quotas may play well in textile states like North Carolina, just as the steel tariffs have shored up support for the president in Pennsylvania, Ohio and Kentucky. But these trade restrictions hurt the cause of free trade and the nation as a whole.

China's Reponses

China has strongly protested plans by the United States to slap quotas on Chinese textile imports of dressing gowns and bras, accusing Washington of violating WTO principles of free trade.

The Chinese government expresses deep regret over this decision, the Ministry of Commerce said in a statement.

The American government ignored the strong opposition from the Chinese side, made such a recommendation, violating the World Trade Organizations principles of free trade, transparency and non-discrimination.

China threatened to take the issue to the rules-based global trade body.

The Chinese side retains the right to appeal to relevant agencies of WTO to protect the rights and interests of Chinese industries, the ministry said.

A ministry spokesman told AFP Chinese officials had cancelled a trip scheduled Wednesday to the US to meet soybean sellers.

The spat adds to a rising number of disputes between the two trading giants, as the US seeks to balance a 10 billion dollar trade deficit with China blamed on Beijing boosting its competitiveness by deliberately undervaluing its currency.

The new row erupted Tuesday as Washington announced quotas on Chinese textiles after finding a flood of subsidized imports has hurt US textile makers.

A US trade panel examining a complaint from the US textile industry called for safeguard relief against Chinese-made knit fabrics, dressing gowns and bras, the US Commerce Department said.

The move, which could limit the growth of Chinese imports to 7.5 percent annually, came under the provisions of Chinas accession agreement to the WTO.

But the ministry said the US measures did not fit the provision that allows the United States and other WTO members to impose temporary quotas in the event those imports are found to cause market disruption.

China did not explicitly threaten retaliatory measures, but said overall trade relations could be damaged.

China hopes the US will realize the negative impact the decision is bound to have on bilateral trade relations, the ministry said.

A group representing Chinese textiles manufacturers lambasted the US decision as completely wrong and arbitrary.

The China Chamber of Commerce for Import and Export of Textiles said the US textile sector had only itself to blame for slumping production.

It insisted Chinese manufacturers had nothing to do with the sharp increase in exports, saying the growth only underscored the changing nature of the industry.

The accusations of US domestic producers to Chinese textile exporters are fabricated, there is no factual foundation, it said.

One US industry group estimated that since 001 exports of dressing gowns from China have increased by 05 percent, bras by 8 percent and knit fabrics by 8,000 percent.

But the chamber argued China has become one of the USs bright spots in its textile exportation market and benefits much more from maintaining the fast growth of the market.

It further reminded Washington that Chinas textile imports from the US have grown sharply, surging 148 percent to 787 million in the first nine months of this year compared with the same period last year.

Given that the restrictions would be calculated in dollar values rather than volume, they would affect a fraction of the total textile trade between the two countries, which suggested the move was politically motivated.

The products affected have an annual export value of less than one billion dollars, so its unlikely there will be any substantial impact on Chinese textile exporters, said Li Zhixian, a textile analyst at Guotai Junan Securities.

The US government seems to be doing this more for political reasons than economic reasons.

In response, the dollar sunk to record lows against the euro in Tokyo, with the euro hitting 1.178 dollars.

Analysts attributed the slide to worries that the US move could open the door to other protectionist barriers.

So far, China has not threatened to retaliate. And while the Chinese government said it would reserve the right to seek relief from the World Trade Organization, the statement came from a Commerce Ministry spokesman rather than a policymaker. Beijing-watchers take this as a sign that, for now, Chinas leaders dont see the issue as a major one.

That reaction is far more muted than the outcry in Europe over the steel tariffs that President Bush imposed last year. After the WTO ruled last week -- as expected -- that the tariffs violate international trade rules, the European Union prepared $. billion worth of retaliatory tariffs on American products.

Conclusion

The trade barrier battle between China and US is hard to predict and if it can not be calmed down, it is not a good thing to both sides.

First of all, China has to admit that it gives the protection to certain departments and products violate the WTO accession agreement.

Secondly, the too aggressive action taken by US against China is not appropriate.

China's trade surpluses with American and European countries first reflect China's police of welcome to the foreign direct investment. It shows that China is not pushing trade protectionism. In addition, China's opening degree is also manifested in its relatively low import tariff after joining WTO. Admittedly, it still can not qualify the standards of a WTO membership.

At last, I do agree that China need to cope with the fair trade competition. And speed up its reform of every social and economy aspect. A more open and free trade market between China and US is not only good for the American economy but also good for China. So, I believe the American's push to China to speed up its opening process is necessary but it is also not wise to push too much and hurry. I think China and USA need more talk and cooperation at this point and achieve a win-win solution based on their common goal-boosting their own economies, is not impossible.

US Trade Barriers against China's Export

Prepared by Jing Wang

Appendix

SUMMARY OF U.S.-CHINA BILATERAL WTO AGREEMENT

AGRICULTURE

The Agreement would eliminate barriers and increase access for U.S. exports across a broad range of commodities. Commitments include

?Significant cuts in tariffs that will be completed by January 004. Overall average for agricultural products will be 17.5 percent and for U.S. priority products 14 percent (down from 1 percent).

?Establishment of a tariff-rate quota system for imports of bulk commodities, e.g., wheat, corn, cotton, barley, and rice, that provides a share of the TRQ for private traders. Specific rules on how the TRQ will operate and increased transparency in the process will help ensure that imports occur. Significant and growing quota quantities subject to tariffs that average between 1- percent.

?Immediate elimination of the tariff-rate quota system for barley, peanut oil, sunflower-seed oil, cottonseed oil, and a phase-out for soybean oil.

?The right to import and distribute products without going through a state-trading enterprise or middleman.

?Elimination of export subsidies on agricultural products.

China has also agreed to the elimination of SPS barriers that are not based on scientific evidence.

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS

China would lower tariffs and eliminate broad systemic barriers to U.S. exports, such as limits on who can import goods and distribute them in China, as well as barriers such as quotas and licenses on U.S. products.

TARIFFS

?Tariffs cut from an average of 4.6 percent to an average of .4 percent overall and 7.1 percent on U.S. priority products.

?China will participate in the Information Technology Agreement (ITA) and eliminate all tariffs on products such as computers, telecommunications equipment, semiconductors, computer equipment, and other high-technology products.

?In the auto sector, China will cut tariffs from the current 80-100% level to 5% by mid-006, with the largest cuts in the first years after accession.

?Auto parts tariffs will be cut to an average of 10% by mid-006.

?In the wood and paper sectors, tariffs will drop from present levels of 1-18% on wood and 15-5% on paper down to levels generally between 5% and 7.5%.

?China will also be implementing the vast majority of the chemical harmonization initiative. Under that initiative, tariffs will be at 0, 5.5 and 6.5 percent for products in each category.

RIGHT TO IMPORT AND DISTRIBUTE

Trading rights and distribution are among the top concerns for U.S. manufacturers and agricultural exporters. At present, China severely restricts trading rights (the right to import and export) and the ability to own and operate distribution networks. Under the Agreement, trading rights and distribution services will be progressively phased in over three years. China will also open up sectors related to distribution services, such as repair and maintenance, warehousing, trucking and air courier services.

SERVICES

China has made commitments to phase out most restrictions in a broad range of services sectors, including distribution, banking, insurance, telecommunications, professional services such as accountancy and legal consulting, business and computer related services, motion pictures and video and sound recording services. China will also participate in the Basic Telecommunications and Financial Services Agreements.

ANTIDUMPING AND SUBSIDIES METHODOLOGY

The agreed protocol provisions ensure that American firms and workers will have strong protection against unfair trade practices including dumping and subsidies. The U.S. and China have agreed that we will be able to maintain our current antidumping methodology (treating China as a non-market economy) in future anti-dumping cases. This provision will remain in force for 15 years after Chinas accession to the WTO. Moreover, when we apply our countervailing duty law to China we will be able to take the special characteristics of Chinas economy into account when we identify and measure any subsidy benefit that may exist.

PRODUCT-SPECIFIC SAFEGUARD

The agreed provisions for the protocol package also ensure that American domestic firms and workers will have strong protection against rapid increases of imports.

?To do this, the Product-Specific Safeguard provision sets up a special mechanism to address increased imports that cause or threaten to cause market disruption to a U.S. industry. This mechanism, which is in addition to other WTO Safeguards provisions, differs from traditional safeguard measures. It permits United States to address imports solely from China, rather than from the whole world, that are a significant cause of material injury through measures such as import restrictions. Moreover, the United States will be able to apply restraints unilaterally based on legal standards that differ from those in the WTO Safeguards Agreement. This could permit action in more cases. The Product-Specific Safeguard will remain in force for 1 years after China accedes to the WTO.

TEXTILES

Chinas protocol package will include a provision drawn from our 17 bilateral textiles agreement, which permits U.S. companies and workers to respond to increased imports of textile and apparel products. This textile safeguard will remain in the effect until December 1, 008, which is four years after the WTO agreement on Textile and Clothing expires.

Please note that this sample paper on US trade barriers against China is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on US trade barriers against China, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on US trade barriers against China will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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