1936: The Nazi Olympics

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The modern Olympic Games is an international sporting event held every four years at different sites throughout the world. Many countries, totaling more than ten thousand athletes, compete against each other in a variety of sports. Began in Athens, Greece, in 186, the Games were established to promote a more peaceful world. Although an athletic event, numerous countries have used the Olympics as an opportunity to make a political statement. One such Olympics were the 16 Olympics in Berlin, Germany…The Nazi Olympics. Due to the Spanish Revolution, the Spanish athletes returned home before the finish of the games. Brazil sent two teams, each representing a different political viewpoint. They were both barred from competing. And then there was the host country Germany. In the following pages you will read about a sinister leader of that country trying to prove to the world that the Aryan race was supreme and how he would use the Olympics to prove this idea. You will also read about how one man did as much as anybody to dispel those notions.

The 16 Olympics was awarded to Berlin in 11, two years before Adolf Hitler came to power. Obviously, the committee that selected Berlin had no way of knowing what was going to happen. In 1, Hitler came to power and the Nazi movement would soon control the country. Hitler, of course, jumped at the chance to promote the Nazi Party. The Berlin Olympic Games of 16 was a gigantic Nazi showpiece. There were more swastikas bedecking the main stadium than there were Olympic flags. The Nazis spent approximately $0 million, more than all the other Olympics combined. Hitler arranged for Leni Riefenstahl, a German television and movie producer, to make a $7 million film of the event. He ensured that all streets were cleaned and that all signs of the state-run anti-Jewish campaign were removed. By the time the 4 countries arrived, the stage was set.

Of course, it almost did not happen. Many people throughout the world did not feel comfortable attending the Berlin Games. An alternate event, dubbed the Peoples' Olympics, was scheduled for Barcelona, Spain. The plan, however, was dismissed due to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July of 16. When it became known that Jews were banned from any German National team, a violation of the Olympic charter, many Americans in the United States demanded a boycott of the games. The Committee on Fair Play in Sports seemed to sum up the general attitude of the nation

...sport is prostituted when sport loses its independent and democratic character and becomes a political institution...Nazi Germany is endeavoring to use the Eleventh Olympiad to serve the necessities and interests of the Nazi Regime rather than the Olympic ideals.

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Avery Brundage, head of the United States Olympic Committee, made a personal visit to see the situation for himself. As I stated earlier, though, Hitler had everything removed that showed any hint that anti-Semitism existed in Germany. Brundage was convinced by German officials that Jews could try out for the German team just like anybody else. Short-lived boycott efforts formed in other countries as well. Great Britain, France, Sweden, Czechoslovakia and the Netherlands were other countries voicing strong objections to the games. Once the Amateur Athletic Union of the United States voted for participation in December of 15 (by a margin of .5 votes), the other countries, however, fell in line. Although no countries boycotted, several Jewish athletes on various national teams from Europe boycotted. Despite the preliminary doubts and the growing tensions that were to culminate in World War II, the Berlin Games attracted 4 countries and 4,066 athletes, more than any other previous Olympics.

On the positive side, there were many great technological achievements that happened during the Berlin Games. Events were televised on a closed-circuit system throughout the Olympic Village and to public halls and theaters around the country. Although it is common to have complete coverage from start to finish in this day and age, this was a novelty in the Summer of 16. Radio had been around for several years but television was just beginning its popularity run. Zeppelins, a rigid airship having a long cylindrical body supported by internal gas cells, carried newsreel film to other European cities. Results were transmitted to other news media by telex, a communications system consisting of teletypewriters connected to a telephonic network to send and receive signals, as soon as events were completed. This allowed people throughout the world to be relatively up-to-date with what was going on in Berlin in 16. A glorious tradition was also started during the Berlin Games. Twelve days before the Olympics began, a torch was lit at Olympia, Greece, the site of the first Olympics in the history of the world. Carried by more than ,000 runners, each person carried it for one kilometer as it passed through Greece, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria and Czechoslovakia. Arriving at Olympic Stadium in Berlin just before the start of the Games where 110,000 spectators awaited anxiously, thirty trumpets blared over loud speakers as Hitler presided over the ceremony. Composer Richard Strauss led an enormous orchestra and chorus that featured Deutschland über alles (Germany over all) and a new Olympic Hymn. Hitler himself reviewed all athletic teams as they marched in. Teams that dipped their colors and saluted Nazi-style were greeted with thunderous roars from the crowd. Those that didn't were met with silence. The moment of truth was at hand.

From the beginning, many athletes and members of the press were alarmed of the nationalistic state that surrounded Germany. The military atmosphere, with the ever-present swastikas and portraits of Hitler, sure did not make it any more comfortable. The martial music that blared through loudspeakers was deeply disturbing to many. Many journalists, suspected of anti-Nazi sentiments, found that their hotel rooms had been looted by the secret police. But not all of the atrocities went detected. Most tourists were unaware of the "clean-up" that went on before the Olympics started. They were also unaware of the 800 Gypsies that were arrested and interned under police guard in a special Gypsy camp in the Berlin suburb of Marzahn. In spite of all this and in Nazi Germany's pro-Aryan setting, it was ironic that the greatest athlete of the Games turned out to be an African-American sprinter.

James Cleveland Owens was born in 11 in Alabama and was the grandson of slaves. Owens was an outstanding athlete throughout his high school career. He later was a member of the Ohio State University track team. At the Big Ten Track and Field Championships of 15, he set or equaled world records in six events the 100 and 0-yard dashes, 00-yard low hurdles, the long jump, 00-meter run and 00-meter hurdles. That is six world records in one afternoon, and he did it all in 45 minutes! The following year, he swept the 100 and 00 meters and long jump at the Olympic Trials and headed for Germany as a favorite to win all three.

Owens run to glory was going as planned. He won the 100 meters and had two Olympic-record-breaking heats in the 00 meters. He would eventually win the 00 with a new Olympic record of 0.7 seconds. Soon after was the 4 x 100 relay race. With Owens running the first leg, the U.S. team ran the 400 yards in .8 seconds, a new world record. Sandwiched between these events was the long jump. Being this was his best event and since he was the world-record holder in this event, few people thought he would have problems. But under the gaze of Hitler, Owens twice illegally crossed the starting line, disqualifying his jumps. After successfully performing this tasks probably thousands of times, he botched it on his first two tests in the biggest event of his life. Owens was standing alongside the jumping pit when another competitor, Luz Long, approached him. This, however, was not just another competitor. Luz Long was from Germany. Tall, blond and blue-eyed, Long personified the pure Aryan that Hitler thought of as the Übermensch, a kind of superman. Fortunately for Owens, Long did not share any of the Führer's racial notions. In Owens, he saw a fellow athlete that needed help. Long suggested that Owens draw an imaginary line a few inches in front of the starting board. Owens qualified easily on his next jump. A friendly competition was just starting between these two competitors. In the finals later that day, Owens reached 5 feet 5 ½ inches and 5 feet 10 inches on his first two jumps. Long tied him at 5 feet 10 inches on his fifth jump. Motivated by his new friend's competitiveness, Owens then cleared 6 feet on his fifth jump and on his final attempt reached 6 feet 5 ½ inches, his final leap and an Olympic record. Ironically, Long's advice to Owens quite possibly might have cost him the gold medal in that event. After the event Owens and Long walked arm-in-arm away from the landing pit. They would never meet again after the Games. They did however write to each other and, after Long was killed in Italy during World War II, Owens continued to write his family. Before he died of lung cancer in 180, Owens wrote

"You can melt down all the medal and cups I have and they wouldn't be plating on the 4-carat friendship I felt for Luz Long."

Jesse Owens won a total of four gold medals during the 16 Olympic Games. Astonishingly, no other athlete would equal that feat until 184 when another U.S. sprinter-jumper, Carl Lewis, won gold medals in the same four events. But the differences between the two put Owens feat on a much higher plateau. In 184, the Soviet Union boycotted the Olympics, by far our closest competitor. Lewis also accomplished his feat in the United States, far away from Nazi Germany and many years after any type of legal discrimination and racism was banned. He did not have to perform under extreme racists conditions or under a ruthless dictator's watch. Owens did not have these comforts. Owens' achievements had consequences far beyond the arena, for they effectively debunked the myth that Aryan superiorityright in front of Hitler. In fact, the 10 African-Americans on the U.S. track team outscored all other national teams, winning 1 medals in all (eight gold, three silver and two bronze).

A common fable from these games is that Hitler refused to congratulate Owens in his remarkable accomplishment. Although part of the story is true, not all of it. It is true that Hitler did not shake the hand of Owens. But, after the first day, he shook nobody's hand. Beaming with extreme national pride, Hitler summoned Hans Woellke, the Games first gold medal winner (a shot-putter) and a German, to his box to offer him personal congratulations. He also congratulated two more athletes, a German and a Finn. Immediately, Olympic protocol officers asked Hitler to receive all winning athletes or none of them. He chose the latter. Although unclear of his intentions, it is quite obvious that he did not want to shake the hands of non-Aryans. Privately, Minister of Propaganda Goebbels called the victories by Blacks a disgrace. Ignoring censors orders to avoid offending foreign guests with racist commentaries, the radical Nazi newspaper Der Angriff (The Attack) wrote on August 6

If the American team had not brought along Black auxiliaries . . . one would have regarded the Yankees as the biggest disappointment of the Games.

Besides Owens, several people shined during the 16 Olympics. German gymnast Konrad Frye was the individual overall medal winner with six (three gold, one silver and two bronze). Dutch swimmer Hendrika Rie Mastenbroek won three gold medals and a silver medal. Alfred Schwarzmann, also a German gymnast, won three gold medals and two bronze medals. The top ten medal standings were as follows

Place Gold Silver Bronze Total

1. Germany 6 0 8

. USA 4 0 1 56

. Italy 8 5

4. Finland 7 6 6 1

France 7 6 6 1

6. Sweden 6 5 0

Hungary 10 1 5 16

8. Japan 6 4 8 18

. Holland 6 4 7 17

10. Great Britain 4 7 14

Germany won the total medal count mainly because of an expanded men's gymnastics program. To no one's surprise, the U.S. men's basketball team won the gold medal. Yet another landmark for the 16 Games, this was the first year that basketball was an Olympic sport. It was not done, however, in a very professional matter. The games were played outdoors, often in the rain. This did not pose a problem for the Americans, though, as it easily defeated almost every opponent. There was really only one concern. Shortly after the games started, the International Basketball Federation put into effect a rule which prohibits all players over six feet three inches tall. The rule would have affected only three players, all Americans, so it was quickly rescinded.

Hitler's Germany emerged as victors in XI Olympiad as they captured the most medals. The preparation and meticulous planning for the Games paid off. Visitors were quite impressed with German hospitality and the magnificent organization of the Games. Most newspaper accounts claimed that the Games put Germany back in the fold of nations and that it made them even more human. But there were a few disbelievers. William Shirer, a foreign correspondent, regarded the Berlin glitter as merely hiding a racist, militaristic regime

Im afraid the Nazis have succeeded with their propaganda. First, the Nazis have run the Games on a lavish scale never before experienced, and this has appealed to the athletes. Second, the Nazis have put up a very good front for the general visitors, especially the big businessmen

In fact, Hitler was so pleased with the Olympics that he planned on building a stadium that would seat over 400,000 people. According to him, all Olympics after the 140 games in Tokyo would be held there. All athletic competition would be confined forever to "pure" Germans. Ironically, the completion date for the stadium was supposed to be in 145. That is the year that the Nazi nightmare would end.

The 16 Olympic Games in Berlin, Germany, was a lavish affair. Although anti-Semitism was around, it was well hidden by the leader of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler. More countries and more athletes performed at these Olympics than ever before. Great technological achievements were made and wonderful traditions were started. Hitler used this platform to show the world that the Aryan race was the supreme human race. Overall, his country was victorious but one man single-handedly disproved this notion. Jesse Owens used this platform to show the world that the Aryan race was not the supreme human race. Under the conditions that he was met with in Berlin, Germany, it was an amazing feat. I believe another great hero of the 16 Olympics was Luz Long of Germany. Against everything that his native land was saying, he befriended Owens and helped him in his time of need. I cannot imagine the courage that these young men had, walking arm in arm away from the jumping pit. It is a symbol that should be displayed at every Olympics. This is the true purpose of the Olympics. Black, white, Jewish, Christian…it doesn't matter. What matters is that we are all human beings. Some, though, seem to be a little more human than others.

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TV and Advertising

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in TV and Advertising, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your TV and Advertising paper at affordable prices! The Television Industry and Advertising

After a long day's work or a hard day at the office, people come home, sit in the Laz-e-Boy recliner, and flip on the television. Watching a favorite TV show has become many people's favorite way to relax or past the time. A wide variety of programming exists and most anyone will be able to watch something they can enjoy. The television industry is part of the entertainment business and has high entertainment value for viewers. In that respect, it is an important industry, for example in terms of the time people spend watching TV. At the same time, it is important as a means of transmitting advertising. Television therefore has a two-fold role, both as a provider of entertainment and a transmitter of advertising. This paper will discuss the relationship between the TV market and the product markets through the market for advertising. It will also examine the different types of advertising, advantages and disadvantages of TV advertising, and how the rivalry between TV channels and the profit potential in product markets affect TV channels' prices on advertising slots, programming decisions, and the producers' purchase of advertising on TV.

From the beginning of television, advertising and programming were connected through network personnel and sponsorship. At first, television programs were owned by advertisers, which based the content of the shows on the interests of the audiences they wished to reach (Folkerts 41). Today it is rare for an entire program to be sponsored by one advertiser. Rather, networks or stations sell time for ads during a show. A basic feature of the television industry is that viewers dislike commercials and are attracted to a channel that invests in its programming. However, a TV channel earns its revenues by selling advertising slots to producers in the product market and attracts viewers for this advertising by investing in programming. Producers in product markets increase sales by advertising. Since an increase in advertising tends to reduce the number of viewers, there are diminishing returns to television advertising. The law of diminishing returns states, "as successive units of a variable resource are added to a fixed resource, beyond some point the extra, or marginal, product that can be attributed to each additional unit of the variable resource will decline" (McConnell Brue 160). Thus, the more a producer advertises its products on a TV channel, fewer viewers are available there for other producers to advertise to.

There are several common types of television techniques and advertisements used by producers. The first is the straight announcement, which consists primarily of someone looking at the camera and delivering a sales talk. Demonstration is important in TV because viewers are interested in what the product will do for them. A testimonial by a famous person can draw attention to a product or idea. Testimonial commercials work best when the celebrity has credibility as a source (Dunn 4). In a dramatized commercial, the point is presented through a story that can be told very briefly. Dialogue is a commercial in which two or more people are talking. The basic advantage of the dialogue is its ability to involve the viewer and encourage them to participate in the dialogue.

The biggest advantage of television advertising, if used wisely, is the unbelievable impact on viewers. It is basically almost the same as a door-to-door sales staff that can make visits at a very inexpensive rate. And when the person presenting the sales pitch is a popular personality, the advertising can be extremely effective. Another benefit of TV advertising is that it impacts a large number of persons not reach by print media. If a person doesn't want to read a newspaper or magazine to find out what's going on, they will more than likely turn on the evening news. Constant repetition of a sales message helps make people feel that they know the product, whether or not they like it. Television makes it possible to repeat a message as often as an advertiser can afford. Commercials are extremely flexible and allow advertisers to demonstrate their product, create a mood, make a blockbusting announcement about the product, or try it out in certain areas. Advertisers can usually find some combination of TV presentations that will communicate the desired impression.

Television advertising also involves several unique problems. Advertising messages on TV come and go quickly. If people have their sets on, but are not watching or listening, they cannot return later. And when commercials are bunched together, a viewer might use the time to get a snack or see what else is on. Although some network shows reach viewers for a surprisingly low cost, certain minimum cost considerations can price the medium-sized advertiser out of the television field. Newspapers and other printed information carry a stamp of authenticity that television broadcasts don't have. People tend to believe something more if they actually see it in print. Another disadvantage is that mass coverage creates the lack of selectivity for the audience. It is difficult to determine exactly the viewing audience and there by choosing which commercials to air at certain times.

Television is used to build and reinforce brand image and awareness. TV gets more than half of all national consumer-advertising dollars. Using the networks as a marketing strategy has become very popular. In the short run, television advertising can dramatically increase a producer's share in a specific market. In a study done on dry cereal advertising, all brands except Ralston's made heavy use of network television. The goal was to observe the effects mass-market advertising would have on Ralston's market share. Ralston began using some network television advertising halfway through the 1-week study period. Ralston saw its market share go up from 4.8 in the pre-TV period to 5.% after utilizing the networks (Jones 7).

Company sponsorship of individual TV programs saw decline after the quiz show scandals of the 160s. Although one advertiser doesn't sponsor an entire show today, the influence it has on programming still exists. Individual advertisers occasionally affect content, but advertising as a form of financing has a more pervasive impact. A decision a TV channel must make within its schedule is the amount of advertising to allow. Some programs that are very flexible, such as newscasts and sports events, permit channels to air large quantities of advertising time. When a channel only sells a small amount of advertising, it can fill in with advertising for its own programs. A TV station's time scheduling will in many cases put restrictions on the quantity of advertising to allow. If, for example, a TV channel broadcasts a series of 5-minute sit-coms during an evening, there will only be time for 5 minutes of advertising per half hour. By considering the amount of advertising a channel allocates, a producer can speculate the audience size their commercials receive.

TV channels programming decisions, as well as advertising firms advertising decisions, are always made before TV viewers make their choices. At the same time, the effect of advertising on the product markets is only felt after the advertising has been actually aired and watched by the viewers. Thus, product-market competition takes place after the TV viewers decisions are made. Advertising firms make their decisions about how much to advertise on each channel only after the TV channels have committed, not only to their programming, but also to their quantities of advertising.

For discussion purposes, television advertising can be broken up into four stages. The first stage involves each TV channel choosing its quantity of advertising and a programming schedule. A TV channel's profit is the difference between its revenue from advertising and costs of investments in programming. The goal is to maximize profits by determining how much advertising to allocate and which programs to broadcast. In the next stage, each producer determines how much to advertise on a specific TV channel. An advertising firm looks at viewer demographics and audience size when deciding which channel and commercial to use to realize the most benefits. The viewer then decides whether or not to watch TV and, if so, which TV channel to watch. They make their decision after the TV channel and producer have already completed their advertising decisions. Finally, the producers compete in the product market by advertising and differentiating their products. The goal is to distinguish their product from others. By making price less of a factor than product differences, producers participate in non-price competition (McConnell Brue 0).

We are now in a position to investigate how the equilibrium outcome detailed in

Section is affected by a change in the number of advertisers, n. This number may

increase, either through an increase in the number of firms in each market, i.e., a decrease

in market concentration throughout the economy, or through an increase in the number of

product markets. Total spending on advertising increases as a result of a reduction in the number of firms, keeping constant the number of product markets. A reduction in the number of firms makes each remaining firm more concerned about the fact that own advertising tends to reduce the number of viewers. This dampens the incentive for each firm to increase advertising and would, all else equal, result in a reduction in total advertising. On the other hand, fewer firms result in a higher price-cost margin. This encourages firms to advertise more. The latter effect turns out to dominate, and it is reinforced by the TV stations' responses. They invest more in programming, thereby attracting more viewers and even more advertising. The result is that both total advertising and total investment in programming increase following a reduction in the number of firms.

Note also that the total number of viewers increases following a reduction in the number of firms. Since advertising increases as well, which tends to reduce the number of viewers, the driving force behind this result is the TV channel's increased investment in programming. Finally, note that the price per advertising slot also increases. This follows directly from the fact each TV channel's two choice variables mutually reinforce each other [see Nilssen and Sørgard (001) on this reinforcement property].

However, total spending on advertising can also increase as a result of an increase in the number of advertising firms, if this latter increase is solely due to an increase in the number of product markets. In such a case, price-cost margins are unaffected by a change in the number of firms. Now, an increase in the number of firms makes each firm less concerned about own advertising's effect on the number of viewers. This spurs an increase in total advertising. Again, the TV channels' response reinforces the initial effect. They invest more in programming, thereby increasing the total advertising even more.

The economic literature on advertising has been slow on modeling the market for

advertising. The present contribution aims at filling this gap, by presenting a model of the

market for advertising that incorporates some crucial features of the TV industry, the

main provider of advertising space.

Most importantly, we assume that viewers are attracted by TV channels' investments in programming but dislike their advertising. Combining this model of the TV industry with a model of product-market competition with advertising, we are able to discuss how asymmetries between various product markets affect the equilibrium outcome. We find that even small asymmetries have dramatic effects. In the case of two product markets where one product market has more firms than the other, but where the markets otherwise are identical, the firms in the product market with many firms choose not to advertise. The crucial feature of our model producing this result is TV viewers' dislike for advertising, entailing congestion among advertisers. At an increase in the price of advertising, the firms in the market with many firms would, as expected, reduce their demand for advertising. This would, in turn, reduce the congestion of advertising on TV and thereby attract more viewers. The firms in the market with few firms would respond to an increase in the number of viewers by increasing their demand for advertising, despite the price of advertising having increased. The TV stations exploit those firms' ‘perverse' demand by increasing their price so that, in equilibrium, the firms in the market with many firms decide not to advertise at all on TV.

The second issue is how product-market competition affects the equilibrium outcome. We found that the profit potential in the product market is of importance for the amount of programming investments as well as for the amount and price of advertising. The less intense product-market rivalry is, the larger is the potential revenue generated by advertising. A TV channel exploits this in two ways. First, it reduces its supply of advertising slots. Second, it invests more in programming to attract more viewers and thereby to encourage the producers to advertise more. As a result, a relaxation of price competition in the product markets results in higher prices of advertising, more advertising, and more investment in programming. This suggests that there are two successive battles over the profit potential in the product markets one among the producers and one among the TV channels. An escalation of advertising by the producers spurs more investment in programming, and vice versa. Product market competition may also be affected by a change in the number of firms. We found that the effect of increasing the number of advertising firms depends on whether the increase is by increasing the number of firms in each market, making the markets less concentrated, or by increasing the number of markets. The former way of increasing the number of advertising firms reduces the price-cost margin and thereby the profit potential in the product markets. Thus, while there now are more firms demanding advertising, they also earn less from advertising.

Please note that this sample paper on TV and Advertising is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on TV and Advertising, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on TV and Advertising will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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One flew over the Cuckoos nest

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Biographical Data

Ken Kesey was born on September 17, 15 in La Junta, Colorado. Ken Kesey is world renowned for his best-selling novel, One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest. At an early age, Kesey had a love for Christian fables as well as the Christian ethical system. Although he had a love for these fables, Kesey never wrote anything or published anything till well after his high school career. In High School he was a champion wrestler setting long-standing state records in Oregon. Unlike most normal authors, Kesey always had a love for the wild side. He would always be doing crazy things and going to parties. While at Stanford, he was in an experience involving chemicals at the psychology department to earn extra money. Among these chemicals were psilocybin, mescaline, and "LSD" which is found in the drug, acid. This experience altered Kesey personally and professionally causing him to not be what he used to be, but instead a crazy and weird sort of individual. He became friends with a group of people that would later call themselves, the Merry Pranksters. Among these pranksters there were famous people like Jack Kerouac, and Neal Cassady. They bought a bus and all went on a trip to the Worlds Fair in New York. They recorded most of the trip and showed these clips to drugged up audiences at their parties. Kesey and the Merry Pranksters became known for their Acid tests as well as their extensive use of LSD and other drugs. Thomas Wolfe wrote a book about the merry pranksters called The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. Kesey and the Merry Pranksters fled to Mexico after their favorite drug, LSD, was made illegal. When they returned to the United States for a final performance of their band, Warlocks, or Grateful Dead, Kesey was arrested on a marijuana charge. After serving his time in Jail, Kesey decided to move to a farm in Pleasant Hill, Oregon to raise his family and try to forget his crazy past. Kesey, being a big partier as well as a drug addict, has made him be known as that. Till this day, Kesey has not settled down and still claims to get the urge every now and then to do Something Weird.

Critical Analysis

One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest

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Julian Moynahan, The New York Review of Books, September 10, 164, p.14.

"One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest was a very beautiful and

inventive book violated by a fifth-rate idea which made

Woman, in alliance with modern technology, the destroyer

of masculinity and sensuous enjoyment."

I do agree fully with this criticism. It is true that Ken Kesey does in a sense, focus on race and sex a lot in this novel. By putting Nurse Ratched as the mastermind and brains behind the whole operation, Kesey has stated that Nurse Ratched is an evil woman that wants to dominate and destroy whoever opposes her. He has made her look as a power hungry woman which likes to have things her way and wont change those ways for anyone. Practically throughout the whole novel Kesey also makes the orderlies that help Nurse Ratched look inferior and weak. Kesey could have put any type of man to portray an orderly but I feel, that because Kesey is a misogynist and a racist, he chose to put 5 black men as the orderlies. I also agree with this criticism because it states that "One Flew over the Cuckoo's Nest" is a very beautiful and inventive book. Kesey's Novel is all that and more, and although he might focus on racism and sexual inferiority, (or evil superiority for this case) Kesey is still a master mind and his book is on of the greatest of all time.

Plot Summary

The novel basically opens up by giving the reader a feel of the ward, and how things are worked there. Chief Bromden, they narrarator, opens up the novel by doing his basic routine of sweeping the ward. He states how the black boys just stand around doing nothing until the head Nurse gets into the ward. The head nurse is Nurse Ratched. She is an evil woman that likes things done her way and no other way.Once she gets into her office, the black orderlies commence doing their daily morning routines. While the Chief is sweeping the floor, the Ward door opens and a man is walked to the admissions office. It is Randle McMurphy. He is the main character throughout the whole novel and the one that starts off all the conflicts in the ward. The first time he gets there he can already sense that there is going to be trouble. Right from the start he makes a bet with the men on the ward. This bet states that he can make Nurse Ratched crack and go crazy. He plans to go against her by doing things that wont provoke her to send him to the disturbed ward that's on the floor above their ward. Already in the beginning of the novel we begin to see a conflict start to arise. The event that seems to anger McMurphy the most is the group meeting that they have on the ward every day. In this first meeting Nurse Ratched asks Harding, a smarter man on the ward, what his problems with his wife are about. McMurphy doesn't like the idea of a person being singled out and made fun of by the rest of the ward. After this meeting he is very angry and nurse Ratched and calls her a "ball-cutter" because she likes to deprive men of their pride by constantly asking them embarrassing questions. The conflicts between Ratched and McMurphy provide some sort of entertainment for the other patients. However, as time goes on McMurphys conflict soon becomes their problem as he gets them involved in the conflict by encouraging their rebellion. As McMurphy's ongoing struggle to overturn the ward continues, it is soon stopped short when he fails to have his suggestion of changing the television schedule so they can watch the World Series approved. The Series was goibng to take place during the time scheduled for cleaning chores. McMurphy gets very angry at this and doesn't know what to do that wont cause him to go into the disturbed ward but that will anger Nurse Ratched. Mcmurphy and the other patients then stage a protest by sitting in front of the blank television instead of doing their work. This plan works and Nurse Ratched becomes very angery and screams at them to return to their work. After this Cheswick, another man on the ward that would always side on McMurphy's side, commits suicide. Cheswick decides his fate after he is denied one of his packs of cigarettes from inside the nurses' office. He becomes hysterical because he wants some of his own cigarettes and none of the men on the ward decide to back him up on his decision. He turns to McMurphy so that he can back him up, but all McMurphy does is continue shuffling his cards. This saddens Cheswick and causes him to scream loudly protesting that he gets his cigarettes back. These actions cause him to be sent to disturbed ward for a couple of days. Upon his return, he commits that horrifying act in the ward pool. McMurphys sudden change is due to the fact that he learns from the lifeguard that there are two types of patients on the ward, those who commit themselves voluntarily and those who are committed permanently and cannot leave the ward on their own free will but have to instead be given approval by the doctors and the nurse to leave the ward. McMurphy suddenly realizes that his insubordination could have probably had him committed to the ward for a very long time. This then makes him be more quiet and not to have his radical thoughts anymore. Since McMurphy cares about the rest of the men in the ward, he helps out his friend Big George and starts fighting with Nurse Ratched's aides. This causes McMurphy to be sent upstairs for Electric Shock Therapy. After going through that experience his "obligation" towards the other patients wears away his strength as well as his sanity. After these events, I feel that the most climactic part of the novel occurs. It all starts off the week after the men of the ward have their fishing trip. During this fishing trip, McMurphy sets up a date between Billy Bibbit and Candy Starr. McMurphy doesn't want to leave the ward until after he sets up the date between the two. McMurphy pays the orderly in charge of the night shift, Turkle, to open the window and let the two prostitutes in. Billy Bibbit goes in the other room with Candy while McMurphy and the other men on the ward get drunk and smoke marijuana outside. Mcmurphy then tells Turkle to unlock the window and to wake him up after he's done so that McMurphy can then escape. Turkle, being drunk and high, forgets his duty and falls asleep. Nobody wakes up until the morning when Nurse Ratched steps into the ward. She finds everyone drunk and thrown on the floor and her anger begins to rise to an all time high. She wakes everyone up and counts to see if everyone is there. She find out that Billy Bibbit is missing and begins to search for him. She then finds him in one of the rooms and confronts him about his sexual encounter with the prostitute Candy. After arguing with him and threatening to tell his mom, which just so happens to be a friend of hers, she tells one of the black orderlies to escort him to the doctors office so that she can have a word with him later. Billy is torn, worried, scared, and angry because he doesn't want Nurse Ratched to tell his mother. Since Billy is assured that she is definitely going to tell his mother, he feels that there is no way that he can confront his mother. Sadly, Billy Bibbit then procedes to killing himelf. He gets a glass cup from inside the doctors office and slits his neck. This completely angers McMurphy and causes him to snap. He goes into the nurses office where Nurse Ratched is thinking about the events that have just occurred, pulls her out, rips open the front of her shirt and starts strangling her. He is strangling her for a very long time until one of the orderlies hits him in the back of his head and starts beating him up so that he can be contained. After all of these events happen, Nurse Ratched orders McMurphy to get a Lobotomy done to him. Once his lobotomy has taken place, McMurphy cannot seem to understand anything anymore or reason for that matter. He is suffering and in pain. The Chief, which became one of McMurphy's closest friends throughout the course of the novel, is saddened by the course of events and he feels that its his duty, as a friend, to end McMurphy's suffering. That night, Chief Bromden gets a pillow and suffocates Randle McMurphy. After this is done, the Chief goes into the tub room and rips off the control station from the floor and breaks the glass window just like McMurphy had planned. The Chief escapes and flees to the land where his people once were to see if they might still be there. The Chief feels like its time that he caught up to how things are and that he started catching up to the things he was away from for many years of his life since he's "Been away a long time".

Characterization

The character that I feel had the most changes occur to him throughout the course of the novel would have to be Randle P. McMurphy. From what started off as a fun loving gambling man who was insubordinate and hated the way things were run, ultimately ended in him being a vegetable. McMurphy went through a series of changes. From changes in his personality, attitude, to changes in his perspectives on life. Many events cause him to change this way. For example, the deaths of Cheswick, and Bibbit, and the constant threat of Nurse Ratched. McMurphy changed from hating the system and wanting to bring it down, to understanding he had to follow certain rules. McMurphy hated the system but he wasn't stupid. He didn't want to do anything that would provoke Ratched to send him to the disturbed ward, so this in turn cause him to follow the rules for a short while. These changes in his personality and attitude soon change back to what they once were after the death of Billy Bibbit. He goes from a man that follows the rules and tries not to get in a very big deal of trouble, to the crazy insubordinate man that he came in as. This is shown after he attacks nurse Ratched for being the cold-hearted woman that she is. I personally was kind of disappointed in the way that Kesey decided to end this mans role in the book. But thinking about it, it was actually a good ending for a man that did so much for the other men on the ward. And of course, McMurphy ultimately succeeded in doing what he wanted to do in the first place. Which was bring down Nurse Ratcheds reign of terror, and to prove to her that she was not exactly what she thought she was. This in turn, makes McMurphy the most drastically changed character.

Relevance

The things that One Flew Over the Cuckoos nest teaches us are ideas that will never go away. The morals like, not letting people take advantage of you and abuse of you, are morals that will never go away. McMurphy's stand against Ratched's tyrannical rule proved that man will stand up for things that he believes aren't right and that he wont let anyone abuse of him. Now in the 1st century, this still holds to be true. You cannot let a person decide your fate and rule over you like as if they were more important than you. That's just not right, and Kesey does a good job of explaining this throughout the novel. Also, the personal problems that the men on the ward had with themselves and with others, will never go away. To this day many men in the world have problems with their wives, not just the men in this novel. Chief Bromden's problem of not thinking that he "big enough" is also a common problem among teens and people of various age groups these days. People lack confidence, when they shouldn't have to not believe in themselves. Bromsted learns at the end of the novel that he is "big enough" and that he is capable of standing up for him self. These are things that we have to learn about ourselves, that we have to make sure doesn't' happen to us. These key things that were important enough to be mentioned in this book, are still true to this day. Man won't ever get rid of the never-ending struggle between himself and his confidence. The only thing to do is make sure certain things don't happen to us as how they did in the novel. We can only hope that our marital, personal, and confidence problems aren't resolved on account of someone else's death.

Memorable Passage

I chose the last three paragraphs of One Flew Over the Cuckoos nest as my memorable passage because I feel that it finally lets the reader know exactly what the Chief wants and exactly what hes thinking. I'll never forget that because I never expected that it would be the chief that escapes and the chief that gets to leave the ward. This passage also gives the reader a sense of resolution. Like as if all the problems are over in the novel and everyone else can finally start living their own lives. The use of words that Ken Kesey uses on describing the way the Chief leaves, and what he feels, help give the reader a good understanding of what Bromsted is feeling as he is running away from the wretched ward that gave him so many problems throughout the course of his life. And although you couldn't really know how the chief interacted with other people, you can finally know that he really is a very good person inside. After he offers to pay the man back later when he gets back up on his feet, just goes to show that the chief was a very kind man. I personally liked the character of the Chief, because he didn't really say much throughout the whole novel, but he actually had a very significant impact and played a very important role on the outcome of certain events that transpired throughout the course of the novel.

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TOO Good

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in TOO Good, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your TOO Good paper at affordable prices! Industrial Revolution This time period is quite an exciting period to be studying the Industrial Revolution, because of the fact that there is another revolution going on in the workplace. Every time technology changes, everything around it changes, and it is an exponential process. Technology increases, and then, using the new technology, it increases even more. 0 years ago, people used filing cabinets, and a pencil and paper, but recently, with the invention of computers, all that has been turned into hard disks, and emails, and gigabytes. Before the Industrial Revolution, people were farmers, and life was pretty slow, but with inventions like the cotton gin, and the assembly line, mass production evolved. Mass production is when companies can "pump" out the same product at a very efficient and inexpensive rate. The assembly line was one of these methods. An item would be sent down a treadmill, and at each point, there would be someone to work on one aspect of it. One person would punch a hole, and the next person would put in a screw, and so on, down the line, until the item was complete. This began something called division of labor. This was when people would repeat the same task over and over again, such as in an assembly line. This was very repetitive, and quite boring. England was a country that was the ideal for the Industrial Revolution it was on the water, so it was perfect for trade. It had lots of natural resources, and also a large population. The population both led to more ideas, and more workers. The country was also a wealthy one, with a good economy, and therefore there were ample investors for companies to begin. The revolution eventually spread to Western Europe, and even to the Americas. There is no doubt that inventions and technology was the key to the Industrial Revolution. It changed the way things are made, it changed the price, and it changed the working conditions. It was indeed, revolutionary. PART The Industrial Revolution in Britain changed the society profoundly; it caused a complete change in working conditions and the relationship between the working and middle classes. The working conditions became very harsh during the industrial revolution. Assembly lines led to mass production, which led to the division of labor. The division of labor was a method of working which involved doing the same task over and over. It was totally mindless, and it led to bitterness towards the middle class from the working class. The managers of the factories, whom were members of the working class, became more concerned with profit vs. expenses after learning about mass production, and started to cut wages to make a quick buck. This also led to bitterness on the part of the working class. The emergence of the strong middle class was part of the marked changed that occurred during the Industrial Revolution in Britain. These working conditions are still applicable to the factory workers of today; this shows how revolutionary they were. This was the first time in history the working and middle classes disputed over conditions, and wages. This relationship is still very common, and very important. If the workers don't complain, then they will not work as hard because of their feeling of resentment towards their bosses. And vice-versa, if the bosses don't try to lower wages, then they will have to make up for it with higher prices, and then the consumer suffers. The protest towards bosses led to the formation of unions, which are still a very important part of the economy. The Industrial Revolution affected the whole stability of a nation, not only the economy. It affected the relationships between classes, and also the relationships between countries. The most important part is how all of these concepts are very much applicable to today's economy, which is why the Industrial Revolution was such an important period of time in the history of the world.

Technology Application In 1 Century

A quote I heard many times when I was in high school and which I now know traces back to Sir Francis Bacon, one of our earliest scientist or philosophers as they were then called, is the statement Knowledge Is Power. Today, I believe that the fuller, more correct statement is to say, the application of knowledge is power. The study of science, and technology subjects will broader our opportunities in life. As we continue to advance to the 1st century- now lesser than 0 days away-we are well aware that technology is possibly the hottest industrial commodity around the world today. In the years ahead, it will be an increasingly critical factor in determining the success or failure of businesses. It is the fuel many of us are looking at to help us win this race to the 1st century. To do that, we should make technology matter. In this paper I am going to share my technology forecasts. I try to focus on my new forecasts a decade into the future - the first decade of the 1st century, because that is how far most businesses need to be looking ahead. There has never been a neutral or value-free, technology. All technologies are power. They evoke economic and social consequences in direct proportion to their dislocation of the existing economy and its institutions. I believe that technologies such as biotechnology and genetic engineering, intelligent materials, the miniaturization of electronics, and smart manufacturing systems, and controls, will be the hottest technologies in the next decade. I am going to put together a list of what I think as the top ten innovative products that will result from those technologies. Number one on the list is something we call genetic. There are pharmaceutical products that will come from the massive genetic research going on around the world today. In ten years, we will have new ways to treat many of our ills - from allergies to ADIS. We may see the discovery of new methods of treatment for various types of cancer, for multiple sclerosis, osteoporoses, Lou Gehrigs and Alzheimers disease, to name just a few. The biotechnology frontier, especially developments in the field of genetic, promises- and to some degree has already archived - a revolution in agriculture and human health care. But proving the means to develop plant species that are more disease-and-pest-resistant, more tolerant of drought, and able to grow during extended periods of adverse conditions. These technologies will very likely provide future increasing in agricultural productivity. So far, these techniques have not add much to world food production; recent grow has come primarily from increasing acreage in production, in response to higher grain prices. However, further expansion of productive land is limited, and the increased application of fertilizer appears to be reaching a point of diminishing returns. Therefore, increased agricultural productivity from this new field could be essential to feed the growing population. The mapping of human and plant genomes, a process already well underway, will provide greatly increased knowledge of genetic processes and, to some extend, information about how to control them. For humans, this will provide the means to deal with diseases that have genetic origins or result from man functioning of genetic material in the body. These diseases include potentially cancer, cystic fibrosis, Gauchers, hemophilia, rheumatoid arthritis, AIDS, hypercholesterolemia, and many others. Furthermore, genome analysis of an individual can indicate propensity to diseases whose symptoms have not yet been manifested. Scientists believe that many psychological and behavior attributes can be genetically controlled and therefore subject to diagnosis and eventually, for aberrant conditions, corrected. Such uses of this technology, of courses, raise serious social and ethical questions that must be considered. Other applications of biotechnology might produce novel protein for food replacing meat, stimulate awareness and evaluation of microbial threats (including archaea, ancient bacteria, being perhaps more adaptable and potentially hazardous than was previous thought), and creation of plantation to produce and distribute biological products in the ocean. The process of cloning was perfected; evidence by the fact that in 17 a sheep was successfully cloned in Scotland. Hence, biotechnology could eventually eliminate food shortages, improve health, and extend life expectancy. Number two on the list is the personalized computer. The personal computer now sitting on our desk will be replaced by a very powerful, personalized computer. It will be able to send and receive wireless data. It will recognize your voice and follow your voice commands. It will include a variety of security and service tools that will make the computer fit your own individual needs. When we turn on our personalized computer the intelligent agents built into it might automatically show us high-lights and stories from last nights football game. It could display the current stock report on your own portfolio and ask it you would like to make any changes. It would give us a traffic report for our normal commute to work and suggest an alternate, if necessary. Finally, it may let us know what the lunch specials are at our favorite restaurants and ask if we would like to make reservations. The third product on my list is the multi-fuel automobile. In ten years, our cars will have to meet even stricter requirements for emissions and efficiency. And to do that, we are going to see a gradual shift to other fuel and power sources. Barring a major oil crisis, we dont see a rapid shift to those alternatives. The internal combustion engine will still have a major place in ten years. But we will see an increase in vehicles running on energy sources like batteries, kinetic energy, fuel cells, and hybrid sources. At first, these will be used in low-weight vehicles that typically travel short distances. But as these alternative- powered vehicles are introduced into the general population, many of our experts believe that they will likely run on a combination of fuels - like reformulated gasoline, electricity, and compressed natural gas. The fourth product is the next generation television set. Ninety-nine percent of American homes have televisions, and over the next decade, we will be replacing them. These new television sets will be wide-screen, digital, high-definition models with extremely sharp clarity. Many will be so flat that we will hang them on the wall much like a large painting. Eventually, these televisions will merge with the personalized computer I mentioned earlier. Of course, we are going to have to pay for all these wonderful products, and we will probably be doing that will the fifth item on the list, electronic cash. We will be using electronic money for everything from buying soda in a vending machine to making an international transaction over our computer. In ten years, our pocket might not jingle, because credit-card-sized smart cards will have all but replaced our cash and keys. At colleges, we will developed a system that will allow students to pay their tuition, sign up for classes, download textbooks onto their computer, do their laundry, enter their dorm, and order a pizza, all with one smart card. That card, of course, will be directly linked to their parents bank account! The next product on my list is the home health monitor. These devices will be inexpensive, simple-to-use, and non-invasive (which basically means they wont puncture our skin). We will use them to monitor our health conditions right at home. They will be able to track a variety of our physical functions - like liver, levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, sugar, hormones, water, salt, and potassium. Monitoring our total health will be as simple as keeping track of our weight today. The future industrial applications of biology and computing will allow more people than ever before to participate in creating imaginative service, to build new markets and to generate personal wealth. Number seven on the list is another one for our cars. It is smart maps and global positioning systems. Already, we can get a global positioning system in our cars, and it will show us where we are on a map and plot routes. But it wont give us any information about whats going on around us. That is whats going to be different in ten years. We will be combining global position system with the traffic management infrastructure to help manage traffic flow. So, our dashboard map will show us where traffic problems are, and it will plot the best rout around them. We will also be using global positioning systems to help stop crime by giving us the power to monitor the location of our cars and other valuables. And we will be able to follow the exact location of our most precious valuable. Parents will be able to follow the location of their children as they walk home from school. The eighth product on my list is also one we might have in our cars, and we might also have it our office buildings, pipelines, airplanes, and even our sports equipments. These are new, smart materials that will give off warnings when they detect excessive stress. Materials in bridges or airplanes, for instance, could send a signal to a central operator when they detect stress, and that operator could send a return signal for the materials to respond to the stress. Automobile parts could give us a similar warning when they are approaching the point of breakdown. What is really amazing is that these materials will be designed with sensors built into the molecular structure of material. And, not too far in the future, they will be inexpensive enough to be in products all around us. Ninth on my list are anti-aging and weight-control products. That is something we would like to see. Over the next decade, we will see the development of a host of high-tech weight-control and anti-aging products for all the aging baby boomers. Unfortunately, no Fountain of Youth is on the horizon. If it was, I would be back in the lab working on it myself. Nevertheless, new products will make aging a little less traumatic. In fact, we think technology will allow us to look forward to active and comfortable retirements well into our 80s. These new products may include weight-control drugs that use the bodys natural weight-control mechanism, wrinkle creams that actually work foods with enhanced nutrients, and an effective cure for baldness. The final item on my list is not technically a single, specific product.

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COMMUNISM AND ANIMAL FARM

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Communism and Animal Farm

Imagine if you are one of the animals on Animal Farm. You stage a revolution to free yourself of Farmer Jones so that you can have rights. You will be tricked into thinking you are in a socialist government where everyone is equal, when in fact, you are in a communist government where there is a cruel leader. As an animal you will be treated unfairly not just once but many times by Napoleon, a pig, and by the other pigs who slowly take control of all the animals living on the farm, so that they could have absolute power.

One of the inequalities in Animal Farm is how the animals get less food then the pigs. One of the times where this happens is the milk and apples incident. This is the first sign of corruption. While the animals go out to harvest the fields, they leave Napoleon with the milk. They are surprised to find out the milk has disappeared. Later on this is all justified when Squealer a pig says, "Our sole object in taking these things is to preserve our health…. Do you know what would happen if we failed in our duty? Jones would come back!" (5) In other words, the pigs should deserve better than the rest of the animals because they are protecting the other animals. None of the animals like Jones, so they agree. 1

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Another act of inequality is the way the animals have to work, while the pigs just supervise and don't have to earn their privileges. For instance, the animals have to work

for food, if they don't work they don't get food, while the pigs always get food. Towards the end of the book Orwell writes, "…[O]ut came Napoleon himself, he carried a whip in his trotter."(1). This tells how the pigs started using whips to get the animals to work.

Initially all the animals are equal, and the commandments are made for every animal to follow. The commandments are

1. Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy.

. Whatever goes upon four legs, or has wings is a friend.

. No animal shall wear clothes.

4. No animal shall sleep in a bed.

5. No animal shall drink alcohol.

6. No animal shall kill any other animal.

7. All animals are equal. (4)

Yet the commandments are all changed eventually by the pigs for their own needs. For instance commandment three, "No animal shall sleep in a bed", is changed to," No animal shall sleep in a bed with sheets", ( ) so the pigs will be able to sleep in the house. Squealer justifies all this by saying, "A bed is just a sleeping place, all animals sleep in beds. While sheets are a human invention and the house is a more suitable place for us more suitable." ( ) This implies that as leaders, the pigs deserve a better place to live and sleep.

All of this has to do with how Animal Farm starts equal and what the commandments finally stated by the end of the book, "All animals are equal, but some are more equal then others."(1). Which means, that the pigs have more power then the other animals. This is just like communism, because communism is where there are two parties the communists who the pigs stood for because they are in charge, and the working class, which the animals stood for because they are the ones who work. All of this happened so Napoleon could lower the animals' privileges and raise his and the pigs' privileges so they could get absolute power.

Orwell, George, Animal Farm, Penguin Putnam Inc. NY, 156.

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Critical issues in US foreign policy in Angola

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INTRODUCTION

United States foreign policy has been, and still is based primarily on the expansion of its economic, political and military interest . This imperialistic nature of the United States moreover has been triggered by an obsession to dominate, to maintain its global hegemony, and to maintain this disparity . In the process, many countries, especially in the Third world have been stumbled upon. Angola for instance, is a country that has been deliberately derailed and destroyed by the U.S. foreign policy objectives .

This paper, in examining the covert but important role that the U.S. has played in escalating the civil war in Angola, brings to light a major critical issue in U.S. foreign policy. First, it brings to clarity rhetoric in the supposed interdependence between U.S. foreign policy and liberal democracy- isolated strands of the relationship are recognized more easily than the overlapping patterns. This cleared it goes ahead to illustrate that in the new world order of globalization, capitalism and free trade are the determinants of the general direction of U.S. foreign policy. Globalized economic structure supports the warfare in Angola . This paper examines this perilous U.S. foreign policy objective in the country, as the value of human life is overlooked.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ANGOLAN CIVIL WAR HIGHLIGHTING U.S. INTERVENTION

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Angola gained independence on 11 November 175, when the red and black flag with the yellow star representing independent Angola was raised over Luanda, the capital city, after five hundred years of Portuguese rule . This was after guerilla warfare raged against the fascist Portuguese by the three parties, MPLA, FNLA and UNITA. Since the MPLA, led by Agostinho Neto had a stronghold in Luanda at the time, victory was theirs and they become, legitimately, the first government in Angola .

Immediately after independence there was a threat of a catastrophe, since the three parties' talks on a transitional power-sharing agreement at Alvor in January 175 had collapsed. The MPLA invited Cuban military support in Angola since FNLA-under Holden Roberto-, and UNITA-under Jonas Savimbi-, were being backed mainly by the U.S., covertly .

On 10 February 176 Savimbi announced the beginning of a new war, producing a manifesto that threatened, "…No peace in Angola, no economic development…while the Luanda regime hangs on to power thanks to the Cuban soldiers and Russian armor and fighter planes" .

Post-independence also witnessed a period of South African insurgency. Since Angola had harbored the African National Congress (ANC) from South Africa, the South African apartheid government waged an undeclared war upon Angola . Pretoria and the CIA created Jamba, the Potemkin village in the southeast corner of Angola which was Savimbi's headquarters for 1 years , and from here UNITA launched bloody attacks to the southern towns in Cunene and Bie provinces . Savimbi was riding high.

The period of 181 to 188 saw the threat against the society as a whole as the country was drawn into the cold war by the U.S. via the policies of Constructive engagement and Linkage . With Chester Crocker as the architect, ‘constructive engagement' was the U.S. strategy to bring apartheid South Africa back from the brink of chaos. Pretoria was to cede Namibian Independence and give up its illegal military occupation of the country. This Crocker linked to the pullout of Cuban troops from Angola. This was the period when South Africans occupied the southern provinces of the country, and which ended with the defeat of South Africans at Cuito Cuanavale. The war continued between UNITA and MPLA up to the Bicesse Accord of 11 .

The Bicesse Accord was signed on 1 May 11 at Estrol in Portugal, and saw the exhausted sides agree to end the long post independence war . It provided for a cease-fire; disarming and demobilizing of both armies; the formation of a new national army with an equal number of soldiers from UNITA and the government's FAPLA, under Portuguese and British instructors; and multi-party elections which would be monitored by the UN .

Various indications of the gravity of the situation during post-Bicesse were ignored. Two of UNITA's top generals; Antonio da Costa Fernandes and Miguel Nzau Puna defected and sought political asylum in Portugal. They warned of Savimbi's 0,000-man secret army which he was not going to demobilize, and was preparing to return to war if he did not win the elections. The U.S. did not take them seriously enough to drop their support for Savimbi . Worst of all, UNITA remained in control of 4 municipalities and 16 communes against Bicesse. "If there is no opening up there will be no electoral registration, and no registration means no election- there can be no moral justification for this", head of UNAVEM warned. Yet the UN continued to act as if everything was on track as planned. When U.S. Assistant Secretary for African affairs, Herman Cohen visited Luanda, he reinforced the decision to, "…focus on technological difficulties, minimize them, and ignore the political implications" . U.S. foreign policy was so fixated on the need for change from the MPLA government in Luanda that the issues of human rights and of democracy were conveniently forgotten.

Not surprisingly, even before MPLA was announced to have won the elections-President Dos Santos had won 4.57% of the votes for presidency, compared with Savimbi's 40.07%, a result which meant a second round was to be held as no one had a clear majority - UNITA was preparing for war . The war after the 1 elections and the takeover of two thirds of the municipalities in the country in three months by UNITA was made possible by various factors. There was a vast re-supply and logistics operation from South Africa (both South Africa and the U.S. lacked good faith for MPLA, and were allies ); support by units of the Zairian army, which had been equipped by the U.S. as a contingency plan if Jamba fell ; monitoring of airstrips by allied Frontline states, which the U.S. had influenced through high diplomatic pressure ; and a network of former SADF (South African Defense Force) personnel working as mercenaries . The capture of diamond mines at Cafunfo and the oil town of Soyo provided UNITA with significant resources to fuel the war. This period of war, termed as ‘The Siege of the Cities' was the bloodiest (more than 1000 people died every day), and abated the sighing of the Lusaka Protocol in November 14 .

The Clinton Administration in 1 extended recognition of the Angolan government, after 0 years of diplomatic frost from Washington . However by then, MPLA was slowly experiencing death of principle and idealism, as had been advanced by Neto's dream ‘the most important thing is to solve the peoples' problems' . In December 15, Angola failed to vote in the annual United Nations General Assembly debate against the U.S. blockade of Cuba . The height of MPLA's degeneration has been the establishment of close links with the same forces that backed Savimbi and UNITA while they eulogized MPLA .

The Lusaka Accords called for a cease-fire, a new national army, and four ministries and seven vice-ministries for UNITA, plus ‘special status' for Savimbi . A massive war erupted again years later and is the fifth full-scale war in the country since it gained independence in 175 . The current Bush Administration is willing to end the war; but almost obviously, this is to the economic advantage of the United States. Peace in Angola would allow the Benguela railway to be brought back into use and would fit into U.S. plans for the whole of central Africa . After all, U.S. had already established itself by the policy of free markets.

A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF U.S. FOREIGN POLICY INANGOLA

Democracy is the pillar of American political tradition . In the Gettysburg Address in 1864 Abraham Lincoln extolled the virtues of what he called, "Government of the people, for the people and by the people" . Liberal democracy is an indirect and representative form of democracy; based on competition and electoral choice; with a clear distinction between state and civil society, maintained through the existence of autonomous groups and interests; and the market or capitalist organization of economic life .

The American Executive, the key players of foreign policy, have paid so much lip service to the issues of human rights and of democracy, that these terms have been thought simultaneously to U.S. foreign policy. In his book ‘Promised Land, Crusader State' McDougall defines three U.S. foreign policies that directly link with liberty and democracy. ‘Exceptionalism', so called ‘liberty' that gives impetus to other U.S. policies; ‘Progressive Imperialism', making the world safe for democracy; and ‘Global Meliorism', making the world democratic .

During the Cold War, Washington was well aware that the Kremlin bureaucracy was not interested in exporting revolution. Stalin and his supporters had wiped out a generation of revolutionary leaders in the Moscow trials and hunted down Trotskyists all over the world. After the Second World War they had suppressed revolutionary movements in Europe, Asia and Africa . Yet the U.S. over exaggerated the threat of Russian communist menace to argue successfully the global crisis of the free world . This rendered states dependent on the United States for economic and military assistance, as the U.S. accessed their resources.

U.S. intervention in Angola began in the pre-independence years in the name of fighting communism. The CIA was directly but covertly involved in Angola. There were several incidences where the CIA manipulated the media for certain outcomes . One Lusaka fabrication accused Cuban soldiers of committing atrocities in Angola. It mentioned false reports of their rape of some Ovumbundu girls in the Washington Post that led to UNITA soldiers rage and executing of 16 Cuban soldiers . The CIA-manipulated media also ensures response of American citizens to enlist to fight communists in Angola on the FNLA front . They were also successful in exposing Soviet Arms program to the world while they effectively hid their hand in the war . The CIA was also involved in recruiting of mercenaries, building support for the factions of FNLA and UNITA and garnering allies from other African political leaders with the approximate goals of overthrowing a government, building up its replacement, and strengthening a friendly group in its drive to power . Weren't all these policies emanating from a simple frustration that the strong nationalistic forces would have pursued an independent foreign policy that would have posed a threat to America's interests in Angola? That the global meliorist emergency food and humanitarian assistance to the Angolan people was merely a means to a more selfish end, oblivious to human rights and democracy?

During independence, the U.S. did not extend recognition to the MPLA government in Angola. Instead, it continued to fuel UNITA even against the Clark Amendment of February 176 which specifically outlawed U.S. arming of opposition groups . By 18 U.S. support for Savimbi reached a record $50 million (the year that George Bush senior, former CIA chief came to power). Two military flights a day maintained a UNITA campaign that became increasingly destructive . Angola is the grim holder of the world record for mine victims . Malnutrition, Kwashiorkor and Marusmus were visible everywhere, where people died from dehydration because nobody had the strength to walk as far as the rivers . Yet U.S. continued support for UNITA despite these atrocities and consequences of the war.

The three major ‘peace accords' that were signed at Alvor in 175, at Bicesse in 11 and Lusaka in 14 never ushered in peace in Angola . From the period of Alvor to the Lusaka Protocol, the well being of the Angolan people was never a consideration in the formulation of strategies for peace. For instance, the preoccupation of the United States with the presence of Cuban troops in Angola led to UN Security Council under Resolution 66 of 188 to establish UNAVEM I which successfully saw the withdrawal of the Cuban troops . Bicesse Peace Accord and the UN Security Council 66 of 11 authorized the deployment of UNAVEM II. The U.S. State Department was convinced that the details of the accord would support a victory for UNITA in the elections that were to take place in 1 and the Bush Administration provided technical and financial support to UNITA. A visible sign of this support was the brand new four-wheel vehicles by the American company General Motors that UNITA forces cruised in during the elections . As indicated earlier above, indicators of UNITA's plan were ignored. Their losing the elections led to the failure of UNAVEM II. Some insights from UN officials, revealed that since the United Stated supported one of the parties at war, implementation of the peace agreement was difficult . The U.S. illustrated in Angola that it was the boss of the UN.

Clearly therefore, the drive for U.S. intervention in Angolan civil war was neither democracy and liberty nor human rights. In the words of Tom Hanahoe, ‘war has always been at the hart of U.S. foreign policy' . Not surprisingly, there exists a link between oil, militarism, liberalized markets and U.S. foreign policy in Angola.

Angola is the second most important oil producer in Africa after Nigeria. Oil was discovered in Angola in 155 and by 17 oil became the country's principal export. Crude oil accounts for 0% of total exports, more than 80% government revenue, and 4% of the country's GDP.

More than 7% of oil imports of the United States emanates from Angola. Chevron, Elf, Petrofina, BP, Texaco and Petrobas dominated the extraction of petroleum and the management of operations in the exploration blocs by 178. The establishment of the Angolan Exclusive Economic Zone attracted an investment of over $18 billion. With the discovery of massive oil fields the U.S. established a bi-national commission with Angola which supports further liberalization of the Angolan economy so that the vast wealth can still serve external forces.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thomas J. McCormick, "America's Half Century; United States Foreign Policy in the Cold War and after" (Baltimore John Hopkins University Press, 15)

Ellen Ray (Ed), "Dirty Work ; The CIA in Africa" (New Jersey Lyle Stuart Inc., 17)

Nincic Miroslav, "Democracy and Foreign Policy; The Fallacy of Political realism" (New York Colombia University Press, 1)

Victoria Brittain, "Death of Dignity; Angola's Civil War" (London Pluto Press, 18)

Stephen N. Ndegwa & Bradshaw York (Ed), "The Uncertain Promise of Southern Africa" (Bloomington Indiana University Press, 000)

Walter A. McDougall "Promised Land, Crusader State The American Frontier Encounter with the World since 1776" (Boston Houghton Muffin Co., 17)

Ann Talbot, "The Angolan Civil War and US foreign policy" World Socialist Website April 00 http//www.wsws.org/articles/00/apr00/ango-a1.shtml

Tom Hanahoe, "America Rules US Foreign Policy, Globalisation and Corporate USA (Dingle, Ireland Brandon, 00)

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A critical examination of the central contributions of Michael Porter to the development of management thought

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A critical examination of the central contributions of Michael Porter to the development of management thought

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A critical examination of the central contributions of Michael Porter to the development of management thought.

Michael Porter is the Bishop William Lawrence University Professor at Harvard. He is seen by many as a leading authority on strategic management and competitiveness. Throughout the western world universities, chief executive officers of billion dollar corporations and governments have used his principles on competitive strategy. Porter's major contribution has been to detail carefully how management can create and sustain a competitive advantage that will achieve profitability above the industry average (Robbins, 17, p. 60). Evidence of his work in management thought is highlighted by his expansive writing. Porter has written 16 books and 75 articles to the area of strategic management. Three of his major contributions in strategic management have been the books ‘Competitive Strategy Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors (180)' which is now in it's 5rd printing, ‘Competitive Advantage Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance (185)' and ‘The Competitive Advantage of Nations (10)'.

These three texts are concerned primarily with structure-conduct-performance theory (O'Shannassy, 1, p.1) where economics had an important role in the management context. From these theories Porter devised three main frameworks (the five forces analysis, the value chain and the diamond model). Within his writings these became valuable tools in the management world.

Although it is widely accepted that Michael Porter has made a huge contribution in the field of strategic management he is not without his critics. For instance, people such as Mintzberg and O'Shannesy believe that Porter's scientific approach does not pay enough attention to the firm itself or management intuition. Other studies suggest that Porter's one generic strategy model does not apply to all industries and his ‘stuck in the middle' theory is inconsistent.

Porter's main contributions

Strategic management came into trend in the 180's with a focus on competitive advantage. Michael Porter has made a strong contribution in understanding the external entities confronting organisations. Porter's major contribution to strategic management has been his ability to help organisations create and sustain a competitive advantage that delivers a higher than average industry profit.

In his first major work in 180, ‘Competitive Strategy Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors' Porter's goal was to

‘present a comprehensive framework of analytical techniques to help a firm analyze its industry as a whole and predict the industry's future evolution, to understand it's competitors and its own position, and to translate this analyse into a competitive strategy for a particular business' (Porter, 180, p. x).

In Porter's aim of trying to bridge the gap of business economics and strategy he developed the five competitive forces model. The forces involved consist of industry competitors, potential entrants, suppliers, buyers and substitutes. Porter believes that these forces dictate the rules of competition and determine industry profitability as they directly influence prices, cost structures and capital investment requirements and manager's should assess their organisation by evaluating it in the terms of these five factors.

Porter believed that companies needed to choose one of the following strategies cost-leadership, differentiation or focus. Cost-leadership related to striving to become the lowest cost producer in the relevant industry; differentiation meant striving to develop a product or service that was unique and also valued by buyers; and focus aims at segments of industries such as specific consumer groups or product lines.

Porter believed, also that for a company to be at a competitive advantage by pursuing a low cost approach they needed to adopt one of these three generic strategies. He believed by trying to be all things to all people companies are spreading themselves too thinly and therefore not obtaining in advantage or ‘difference' in the industry. These three specific generic strategies are considered a classic and have become a ‘dominant paradigm' in business policy and research (Hill, in Rubach, 18, p.1). Studies by Hambrick (18) have also found support for Porter's generic strategies. Research has clearly shown that among the higher producing firms all three generic strategies are present and that one strategy was clearly the focus in individual circumstances. (Rubach, 18, p.1).

Porter uses the term ‘stuck in the middle' to describe organisations that have failed to gain a competitive by using one of the above generic strategies. Such companies find it hard to achieve long term success unless they are apart of an industry doing particularly well or by coincidence all their competitors happen to be stuck in the middle as well. Porter believes that the secret to long term success is resisting the actions by their competitors or changes in the industry for a reason to change their strategy. Porter is the first to admit that this is no easy task due to technology and customer change and the fact that competitors can easy imitate advantages an organisation has. Ways of achieving long term success include strong economics of scale, reducing price gain to volume, tying up suppliers with contracts and encouraging government policies that reduce foreign competition (Robbins, 17, p. 61). Management must also stay on their toes in order to sustain competitive advantage and keep one step ahead of the competition.

However, despite the developments in the mid-80's strategic management, many believed it was developing short falls in the implementation of strategy. In 185 Porter felt that many companies had lost sight of competitive advantage in their struggle to pursue growth and diversification and turned to such tools as total quality management (TQM), benchmarking and reengineering (Porter, 185, p.x). This lead to his second major work entitled ‘Competitive advantage creating and sustaining superior performance'. Out of this work Porter developed the value chain. The value chain distinguishes centrally between activities that directly produce, market, and deliver the product and those that create or source inputs or factors (including planning and management) required to do so (Porter, 11, p. 0). The value chain is a tool that helps management to focus on value for their customers.

Porter's third major contribution to strategic management was his book ‘The competitive advantage of nations'. By the 10's Porter's theories were regarded highly across both institutions and the industry and his contribution to global competition was welcomed. This again provided management with another tool, the diamond model, toward implementing and maintaining a competitive advantage. The diamond model relates firm strategy, structure and rivalry, factor conditions, relating and supporting industries and demand conditions. Porter believes these attributes shape the information firms have available to perceive opportunities, the pool of inputs, skills and knowledge they can draw on, the goals that condition investment, and the pressure on firms to act (Porter, 11, p. 101)

Criticisms of Porter's contributions

Porter was the first to attempt to create a management strategy from economics; this did not come without its criticisms. It is felt that Porter pays far too much attention to the environment facing the firm and to how it should position itself in that environment and almost no attention to the firm itself (Langlois, 000, p.1) it would appear that Porter's organisation would be quite hollow relying heavily on an unpredictable environment.

Porter's 180 text proposes that for a company to sustain competitive advantage they needed to stay significantly different to their competitors. While Porter's generic strategies received considerable support there has also been doubt that these strategies can be separate. There have been a number of studies done by people such as Hill (188), Murray (188), Wright (187) and Miller (1) that disagree with Porter's one generic strategy method (Rubach, 18, p.1). These studies suggest that a combination of strategies can achieve superior performance, especially within mature industries that are experiencing technological change. The greatest complaint of Porters generic strategies model is that it does not fit all industries. A study done by Pitelis and Taylor suggests that they use of a variety of strategies combined is far more effective in the retail industry (Rubach, 18, p.1).

This leads to Porter's ‘stuck in the middle' concept. As some of the above studies have shown, a combination of generic strategies can work this suggest that Porter's ‘stuck in the middle' theory is not consistent with these results. Porter believed a company that was ‘stuck in the middle' would last or get ahead in its field, the above study by Pitelis and Taylor had shown that this is not so in the retail industry (Rubach, 18, p.1).

Another criticism of Porter is a study done by Dawes and Sharp reassess Hooley's interpretation of the Generic Marketing Structures clusters using the dimensions upon which Porter based his strategy scheme (Dawes, 16, p. 6). The study was done to provide insight into strategy clusters using a mapping technique; the results were designed to show whether or not similar strategies would result in similar performances or if unknown factors were influencing results (Dawes, 16, p. 6). Hooley felt the results of his research could lead managers to take a very different approach. Dawes and Sharp went against Hooley's findings and felt that Porter's generic competitive strategies were of little use in the interpretation of the clusters identified. Further they felt it provided no evidence that these generic strategies were routes to superior profit.

Porter's later work too has been criticised. It has been suggested by many that Porter developed a ‘theory of strategy'. However, economists and marketers tend to dispute this (Harfield, 18, p.1). Foss (16) used Porter as an example of the field becoming too pluralistic and that the later Porter is adding nothing to the ‘foundations' of the field (Harfield, 18, p.1). Hammonds believes that strategy has suffered simply because people tried it, had problems with it and turned instead to the fads of the time. While many people acknowledge Porter's contributions but found them extremely difficult to implement. There has been a view that if you had a strategy it was rigid, inflexible and out of date by the time that you used it. In an increasingly changing technological environment these issues were extremely important. Although Porter always pointed out that ‘technology changes, strategy doesn't' a lot of organisations got very confused about strategy and how to address it. Mintzberg (10) and Bartlett and Ghoshal (11) criticised Porter for narrowing the focus of strategic management by focusing on the industry and the situation confronting the firm regarding the position. Mintzberg also felt that the scientific approach to strategic management felt so wrong and that many managers favour intuition when making strategies (Mintzberg, 14, p.10).

Finally Porter acknowledged that there are four principle issues that challenge a theory of strategy (Porter, 11, p. 84-85). The four principles issues include approach to theory building; chain of causality; time horizon and empirical testing. The main problem behind these issues is that they are all situation/organisation specific where as Porter's frameworks and models are generic and suited to all. Therefore a company can not simply implement Porter's ideas without being faced with some seriously difficult questions.

Porters theories do not relate to practice as well as they do to theory for many. However, despite these criticisms Porter was amongst the first with the ability to analyse management in the competitive economic context. His highlighting the need to focus on external entities confronting organisations and how to gain a competitive edge in business has lead to scholarly thought and critical review of business, profit and context. The implementation of his theories and strategies by business has assisted many in the western world to gain the competitive edge for their company. As is always the case theories will continue to be critically examined and evolved within the changing economic context. At this stage, despite criticism, Porters contribution to management theory continues to have relevance for many in business practice.

Bibliography

Dawes, J & B Sharp (16) ‘Independent Empirical Support for Porter's Generic Marketing Strategies? A re-analysis using correspondence analysis' Journal of Empirical Generalisations in Marketing Science, 1 pp. 6-5. Downloaded from web site on 0/04/01 http//msc.city.unisa.edu.au/msc/JEMS/Pubs/jems/Hooley/Hooley.html

Foss, N.J. (16) ‘Research in Strategy, Economics, and Michael Porter' Journal of Management Studies (January) pp. 1-4

Gavel, D (000) ‘Michael Porter named University Professor' Harvard University Gazette December 7. Downloaded from web site on 0/04/01 http//www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/000/1.07/01-michaelporter.html

Hammonds, K.H. (001) ‘Michael Porter's Big Ideas' Fast Company, 44 p. 150. Downloaded from web site on 0/04/01 http//www.fastcompany.com/online/44/porter.html

Harfield, T (18) ‘Strategic Management and Michael Porter a post modern reading'. Downloaded from web site on 0/04/01 http//www.mngt.waikato.ac.nz/depts/sml/journal/special/harfield.htm

Langlois, R.N. (000) ‘Integrating Management and Economics Perspectives on Competitive Strategy An Oasis or a Mirage?' Academy of Management Annual Meeting Toronto (August). Downloaded from web site on 0/04/01 http//www.sp.uconn.edu/~langlois/AOM.html

Mintzberg, H. (14) ‘The Fall and Rise of Strategic Planning' Harvard Business Review Jan-Feb pp. 107-114

O'Shannassy, T (1) ‘Lessons from the Evolution of the Strategy Paradigm' Working Paper Series RMIT Business, WP /0. Downloaded from web site on 0/04/01 http//www.bf.rmit.edu.au/RDU/staffinfo/oshann_lessons.pdf

Porter M.E. (180) Competitive Strategy techniques for analyzing industries and competitors New York Free Press

Porter M.E. (185) Competitive Advantage creating and sustaining superior performance New York Free Press

Porter M.E. (10) The Competitive Advance of Nations London Macmillan

Porter M.E. (11) ‘Towards a Dynamic Theory of Strategy' Strategic Management Journal 1 pp. 5-117

Porter M.E. (16) ‘What is strategy?' Harvard Business Review Nov-Dec pp. 61-78

Robbins, S.P., R Bergman, I Stagg & M Coulter (000)) Management nd ed. Sydney Prentice Hall Australia

Rubach, M.J. & J.M. (18) ‘"Stuck in the middle" for retailers, perhaps not such a bad place to be' . Downloaded from web site on 0/04/01 www.sbaer.uca.edu/docs/proceedingsII/8asb.htm

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