How has sociology enhanced our understanding of Mental Illness?

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How has sociology enhanced our understanding of Mental Illness?

Sociology has had many effects on medicine over recent years. Medicine historically was seen as being down to scientific knowledge and that illness was caused by certain bodily problems. In regards to mental health, for many years it was treated as illness that was due to personality of the individual. Sociology helped to show that mental illness is not down to the individual's mental state entirely but can be affected by the social surroundings. On this basis it ruled out, many of the traditional views that up until than had been based around the biomedical model. Sociology has also enabled us to look into the reasons why mental illness occurs and means available for the treatment of the illness. This essay will look at theses three areas and try and show in what way sociology has given a better understanding of them today.

Doctors have drawn up the Bio-medical model and it is the model that all western medicine is based on. The five assumptions that it centres around have in recent time been subject to much scepticism and criticism. It is clear to most sociologists that the model is not representative of all modern illness and therefore it lacks and that it is a very narrow approach to all kinds of illness be it physical or mental. The model fails to take into account much of what surrounds mental health problems. By using the model to categorise all health issues it means that mental health has to be put under one of the five assumptions and is therefore treated accordingly. It fails to take into account what it is that might cause mental deterioration. Also much of the model is based on old stereotypical ideal, which have come under scrutiny from feminist who argue that the model takes away much of the traditional roles particularly in childbirth which was taken in as a medical condition thus changing the way in which undertaken. By using the basis of the bio-model many mental illness have been placed under the umbrella of a clinical illness and so therefore enabling them to be treated under a medial condition. As Tyrer and Steinberg say ‘ in a model making era there can be a risk to identify clinical entities prematurely and this may lead a person into difficulties' . This is the case with the bio-medical when it comes to mental illness. The bio-medical model scientific basis can claim superiority over alternative forms of healing. Because of the scientific basis of the model it can push out other traditional or modern form of treatment. The can relate directly to they way in which the patient is treated in regard to their illness. If the person is treated for a mental illness that a doctor has diagnosed according to the symptoms and treats using drugs and as a mental illness then they are using the medical model. If the doctor looks a t the surroundings of the individual and tries to see what has caused this mental imbalance then that is a total different approach. This is what sociology has done to show what the inadequacies are caused by the bio-medical model. It has looked beyond the lines with which diagnosis reached and looked for other symptoms in a persons life that could have caused the problem ‘as the bulk of ‘mental illness' has no proven bodily cause.' So by saying that there is no biological explanation for many mental illnesses then it does not seem that should be treated as if they fitted into the model.

Over history mental illness has been stereotyped to mean certain things. Going along way back it was said to have been a singe of the devil and other supernatural possessions and was stigmatised against due to this. Only until fairly recently has some of this stigma been taken away. Women have always statistically been more prone to mental related illness. This gendered view was seen due to people believing that women were weaker than men. In Freud's study in 1885 on psychoanalysis in Paris this is clear. He believed that this only affected women so all his research was done using female patients and so the results were entirely one sided. Sociology has opened up a new side into the study of the causes of mental illness. It has looked into the social reasons behind it. There are many social reasons why someone might suffer from mental illnesses. People now recognise that it can be caused through the direct result of other actions such as child abuse, divorce, motherhood and financial stress. All these circumstances and more can result in the mental illness of some kind. Economic pressures are a common cause of several illnesses namely schizophrenia that had much higher occurrences in poorer areas, this study was done in Chicago in the 10's. There are several reasons for illness being more common in poorer areas, one being the ‘drift' affect which is loss of earning through poor health which results in the health deterioration more as there is no financial support. And those in higher have a better standard of living so are less likely to be faced with the same kind of social stress. Pilgrim and Rogers say that there is definite correlation between the two ‘it can be demonstrated unequivocally that social stress is correlated with social class.' This is related to Marist critique of the bio-medical model as it a direct consequence of capitalism that a class in more susceptible to contract illness through a direct result of their economic status. Also they think that the medical profession is run by the educated upper class whose interest it is to keep the lower classes happy as they make up the workforce needed for the growth of the economy.

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Sociology has helped change many of the ideas surrounding the treatment and the cure of the problem of mental illness. Prevention is better then cure so it more worthwhile for health agencies to try and prevent the increase in the number of people who suffer. This is very hard in the case of mental illness as is it often near impossible to predict in a person. Social welfare in areas of poverty to give people support when going through problems can try and catch the problem before it develops into a full-grown mental illness. There have been some efforts made by the medical profession to try and prevent illnesses in general including mental health by setting up health promotion clinics around areas that are prone to certain types of illness. Recently we have seen the decrease in the believe that hospitals and technological medicine and the rise in the primary health care due to the medical profession basing much of their finding on technology and the bio-model and also in biographical and holistic medicine. In recent times there has been an increase in the number of patients that have been diagnosed with a mental illness and not the other way round as you might expect with the advances made in medical knowledge. This may not be due to the more cases but the fact that more people are willing to accept that they suffer from a mental illness and will approach their doctor more openly especially in men. So statistically there might not be singe that strategies for cure and prevention don't show a decrees.

Sociology has played a key role in the development into the study of mental health it clearly shows that there is a problem with the bio-model in regarded to the treatment of mental health and due to it has been phased out over the years no longer be at the forefront of modern medicine when it comes to these problems. It s inadequacy to be flexible to patients that do not fit within its five ‘assumptions' are the reason for this. Likewise is the causation of the mental illness. Only as recently as two hundred years ago people believed that women had smaller brains than men and it was due to this that were susceptible to contract mental conditions. Women have been particularly affected through history by mental illness due to gendered approach that was made towards medicine in particular this area. This gendered view and the fact that more men are suffering from mental illnesses now than ever shows the shift in these believes. Sociology has helped bring this understanding about that it is caused as much by social surrounding and situation as anything. And finally the strategies that have been used to cure, care and prevent these illnesses are based around these findings so cure is shifting towards the social environment rather than the drugs being given. This makes treatment for ill patients far more relaxing and easer to get through than being put in a institution and left there until they are deemed better by doctors. And without this study into the illnesses by sociologist and other social sciences the medical profession might not have made the step forward in the treatment for mentally ill patients.

Bibliography

Tyrer, P & Steinberg, D rd Ed (1) Models for Mental Disorder J Wiley & Sons

Pilgrim, D & Rogers, A (1) A Sociology of Mental Health Illness Open University Press

Nettleton, S (001) The Sociology of Health & Illness Polity

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Democracy

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on democracy. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality democracy paper right on time.

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"What's in a name?" Juliet asks. After the changes in nomenclature effected by modern revolutions, from the French Revolution to the feminist movement, it is very clear that the answer is "Plenty, that's what!" Names do matter they shape and sometimes distort perceptions. Ho-Chi-Minh City, for example, is not Saigon, Thermidor is not July, and Ms. is neither Mrs. nor Miss. With this in mind, let us approach the terms radical or extreme democracy, so often applied to the regime of fifth or fourth-century B.C. Athens. These terms are justified neither by ancient evidence nor modern scholarship, particularly in light of the modern ideological connotations of radical or extreme. I wish to argue, therefore, that scholars should avoid these terms, as well as the term moderate democracy, which is also misleading, though to a lesser extent.

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By way of introduction, consider the work of K.J. Beloch. Writing a century ago, Beloch expressed his clear condemnation of Athenian democracy. His despairing rhetorical question about the Athenian dikasteria, of which he writes in Die Attische Politik seit Perikles, indicates his opinion nicely

Would the long series of unjust verdicts, which stretches like a red thread throughout the whole history of Athenian democracy from Pericles to Phokion, have been sufficient to let us recognize what was to be expected from such a tribunal?1

In accordance with these convictions, Beloch writes of Athens' "extreme, absolute" or "unbridled democracy," both in the fifth and fourth centuries.

More recent accounts of Athenian democracy are rarely as stringent in their criticisms, and many of them are laudatory. The terms radical or extreme democracy are, nevertheless, still in circulation. My far-from-complete survey of contemporary scholarship, beginning in the 150s, finds Hignett devoting a chapter of his History of the Athenian Constitution (15) to Radical Democracy. Schachermeyr, in his 16 biography of Pericles, decries "democracy of the most extreme kind under Cleon." J.M. Moore, in his 175 commentary on Aristotle's Athenaion Politeia and other ancient Greek political texts, refers often to the radical democracy of the fifth century. H. Wolff, writing in 17, discusses "radical Attic democracy" of the fifth century, in which, unlike the modern parliamentary democracy of a Rechtstaat, the will of the majority is expressed directly and immediately, without countervailing institutions. J. Bleicken, in his 185 textbook, writes of the radical democracy created by Ephialtes and Pericles in 46/1.

Other scholars use the terminology in perhaps a more complex manner. M.H. Hansen,

18

for instance, who has done so much to demonstrate the rule of law in fourth-century Athens, nonetheless wrote in 174 that while fourth-century Athenian democracy was moderate, the fifth-century democracy was radical. In 18, he writes more cautiously of "the so-called radical democracy of 46-11 and 410-404."4

P. J. Rhodes, author of distinguished studies of Aristotle's (or at least his school's) Athenaion Politieia and of the Athenian boule, argues that, contrary to the Ath. Pol., fourth-century Athens became less, not more democratic, for the sake of efficiency and specialization. Rhodes also makes it clear that Aristotle had his own theory of extreme democracy. Nevertheless, Rhodes occasionally uses the term extreme democracy in a way that suggests it might objectively describe the Athenian constitution.5

These last two sentences point to a paradox the terms radical or extreme democracy are indeed objective, but only when applied to the partisan and anti-democratic discourse of the ancient sources. Aristotle, for example, writing in the Politics, describes the kind of democracy that existed in most of the poleis of his day as extreme (E)SXA/TH), final (TELEUTAI=A), latest (U(STA/TH) or most recent (NEWTA/TH). Although he neither singles out Athens or any other polis as an extreme democracy (perhaps out of prudence, cognizant as he was of Socrates' fate), it is fairly clear that he does have Athens (and perhaps other poleis too) in mind. Plutarch writes of A)/KRATOS DHMOKRATI/A, unadulterate or untempered democracy, perhaps echoing a fourth-century term. The various proponents of oligarchy in Athens in 411 and 404 called for a return of the ancestral constitution (PA/TRIOS POLITEI/A), thereby implying that contemporary democracy was a break with tradition in that sense, one might say that they considered democracy to be radical, although strictly speaking, "radical" in the political sense is a modern, and not an ancient word.6

The critics of Athenian democracy, therefore, referred to it as extreme or untempered, and as a radical break with a better past. The proponents of Athenian democracy, however, of course did not refer to democracy as extreme or untempered. As for the term radical, perhaps Cleisthenes or Ephialtes believed that he was initiating a radical break with the past, but given the prestige of tradition in Athenian society, I doubt that either man admitted it. Certainly, by the late fifth century, Athenian democrats believed that their system, and not oligarchy, was the

1

traditional Athenian regime.7

From the point of view of modern scholarship, Athenian democracy does mark a radical change, politically, from earlier Athenian regimes. Its ideology, however, was strikingly conservative. One may speak of this or that radical change, but to characterize the entire regime as radical democracy is misleading. The term radical, moreover, is hardly value-free it means one thing to a reader of The Daily Worker and quite another to a conservative. In North America, with its consensus politics, most people will automatically react negatively to the term radical democracy and positively to moderate democracy. To call Athens radical democracy is to stack the deck against it; the same is true, of course, of the term extreme democracy.

Above all, the charge that Athenian democracy was extreme, i.e., immoderate and unrestrained, is unhistorical. The recent work of Hansen, Ostwald, Rhodes, and Sealey, among others, cogently defends Athens against that charge. In the fourth century, the rule of law had particularly strong constitutional protections. Even in the fifth century, whose system Ostwald aptly characterizes as "popular sovereignty," the rule of law was firm, if occasionally shaken in crisis, e.g., the trial of the generals after Arginusae.8

A.H.M. Jones, writing in 157, argued against modern scholars who characterize Athens as extreme democracy. I would argue that scholars should similarly avoid the term radical democracy. Likewise, the term moderate democracy should be avoided, both because it legitimizes the term radical democracy and because it suggests that too much democracy is a bad thing‹that democracy must be moderated. I prefer the many more neutral terms that exist, e.g., chronological terms ("fourth-century democracy," "Periclean democracy"), historical periphrases ("what the Greeks thought of as complete or full democracy") or the Greek word demokratia.

It is easier to criticize scholarship than to produce it; my criticism of the terminology used by others should not detract from my great admiration for their achievements. What we call the classical Athenian regime, however, does make a difference. Scholars can, and should improve on the current, unnecessarily biased terminology.

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Road Trip to Disaster: How Cars Lead to Conflicts with the Middle East

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With more and more people driving every day, the amount of gasoline that Americans use is increasing rapidly. There was a time when oil was not as important to the United States, but the invention of cars has led to the need for oil which has caused tension and conflicts between the United States and oil exporters. Nearly every continent harbors oil, but the majority of U.S. oil comes from the Middle East. The U.S. has become very reliant on Middle Eastern oil, and it is this dependence that makes the relationship very fragile. Since the Middle East knows that the U.S. needs their oil so badly, they have a lot of power over the U.S., they use this power to manipulate the U.S. and to get what they want, whether it be money or war support. When the automobile was first invented, the inventor probably did not know that his invention would be the cause of such a powerful relationship.

The actual invention of the automobile did not happen quickly. The first car did not even use oil to run at first, it used steam. It was built in France by Nicolas Joseph Cugnot in 176. Although it was the first officially registered car, it was not efficient, only reaching speeds of kilometers per hour at its fastest. Later, in 1807, Francois Isaac de Rivaz from Switzerland invented the revolutionary internal combustion engine and a car to go with it, the vehicle itself was highly unsuccessful, but the engine sparked ideas from other people. In 1864, the first gasoline powered engine was invented in Austria by Siegfried Marcus. It was able to reach speeds of 10 mph, and was considered to be the forerunner of the modern automobile. His idea was expanded on by multitudes of inventors including Nicolous August Otto. In 1876 he built the first practical gas powered engine. Its four-stroke engine was universally adapted for all liquid-fuel automobiles. When the automobile was finally made practical, it became appealing to the public eye, so Rene Pangard and Emile Levassor decided to manufacture cars for the public in France (Bellis). They improved upon the design of the car and were the first to move the engine to the front of the car. The vehicles used gasoline to power them.

As cars became more popular, the public wanted them to be more readily available, and within their price range. In 101, Ransome Eli Olds invented the concept of the assembly line and produced 45 "Curved Dash Olds". Although he was the leading automobile manufacturer from 101 to 104, the car was still not available to everyone since only the rich could afford it. Then came Henry Ford. He is perhaps the most credited for inventing the car. While he did not invent the automobile, he did perfect the assembly line and popularized cars with the middle class. He was able to make the car cheaper, by manufacturing it quicker. From 108 to 17, there were 15 million Model Ts manufactured (Bellis).The need for gasoline was beginning to rise since there were so many people who owned vehicles. Today, there are about 58 million new vehicles built each year worldwide (Encarta). Each of these vehicles get anywhere from 16 to 0 miles per gallon on average and most cars hold from 10 to 0 gallons of gasoline.

Americans drive .4 trillion miles a year, which is why the demand for gasoline is so high. The United States itself only has a limited amount of fossil fuel to make oil, not nearly enough to satisfy the population's needs, therefore, the U.S. has to import from other oil rich nations. Since the majority of the world's oil is located in the Middle East, that is where it is imported from. The main countries that produce oil are Saudi Arabia, Libya, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Abu Dhabi. The countries have created an organization called OAPEC, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries. They formed the union so that there could be regulations on the oil that was exported instead of just charging any amount that they wanted. Each year, more vehicles are on the road, so the need for foreign oil is always increaing.

The Arab countries that export the oil to the United States know how important their oil is, and they can use that knowledge to manipulate the U.S. On October 6, 17, the Yom Kippur War broke out between Israel and two neighboring countries, Egypt and Syria. The Soviet Union was backing up Egypt and Syria with supplies and money, so the United States did the same for Israel. In order to end the United States sending arms to Israel, 11 members of OAPEC met and made a policy of oil production and export cuts. They decided that they would reduce crude oil production by 5 % each month until Israel withdrew from the territories occupied since the war began. They also announced that there would be a complete embargo on oil shipments to the U.S. ( facts.com ). Then, a month later, they announced that oil productions would be cut 5%. Along with the cut, the other members of OAPEC announced that they were raising oil prices by 17% and the taxes on oil would be raised 70% ( facts.com).

The U.S. was hit hard and economic crisis began to settle. The cut back on oil, combined with raised prices caused severe measures to be made by the president, Richard Nixon. These measures included a ban of gasoline sale on sundays, a lowered national speed limit at 55 mph, a 5% reduction in jet fuel supplies, and a reduction of outdoor lighting, especially Christmas lights (facts.com). The outrageous cost of gas reduced the demand for cars, and as a result many jobs were lost. Although the embargo and the cuts were extremely detrimental to the economy and life in general in the United States, they did not make the U.S. stop supporting Israel, which is why they were imposed in the first place. The U.S. did suffer for their choice of supporting Israel, though, which is what OAPEC was trying for.

Another way that OAPEC manipulates the U.S. is for money. In 1, to boost fuel prices, OAPEC cut its output by 4 million barrels a day, the U.S. uses about 17.4 million barrels a day (facts.com). The results were immediate, and prices began to rise. Then, in 000, fuel prices reached an all time high of $1.68 per gallon. Thankfully, a war did not come from this rise in cost, but tensions with the Middle East rose with the price.

As of today, there does not seem to be an end in sight with the rising prices of gasoline, nor does the public seem to want to do anything about it. Sport Utility Vehicles have become a very popular car in America, totaling about 5% of all the vehicles on the roads. These SUVs use a lot of gas, and are becoming increasingly popular. As long as people keep using so much gas, then OAPEC will always have economic control over the U.S. and there will always be tension. A way of ridding America of this tension would be to switch to hybrid or electric cars which use significantly less gasoline or none at all. Although the automobile has come a long way since Nicolas Joseph Cugnot registered the first one back in 176, it still has a long ways to

go until Middle Eastern nations and the United States of America are at complete peace.

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Phi Theta Kappa Helps Others

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Cans for Kids A Phi Chapter Project

"Touch a heart, warm a hand, give a can"

· Tonight, within miles of you, a child, an elderly person, or someone ill will go to bed hungry.

Cans for Kids aims to address the real societal issue of hunger. "Most food donation activities occur during the holiday seasons. Project Graduation picks up in the summer, when service agency resources are lagging. Using an established community event - college commencements - the program has the perfect venue for collecting donations. Tapping this resource and providing commencement attendees an avenue through which to give back to their communities, Cans for Kids service project increases the number of materials available to organizations struggling to meet the high demand during this period of shortage.

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According to a United States Department of Agriculture report in March 000, eight million Americans go to bed - and wake up - hungry. In our supposedly prosperous nation, one in ten households do not have enough food to meet their daily basic needs. An additional million Americans are food insecure, meaning they have inadequate food supplies and are at risk of going hungry. Although food distribution agencies are located throughout the country, they are unable to accommodate the rising demands of a needy populace, many of whom are children.

Since 18, pantries, food kitchens, and shelters have reported a dramatic increase in the number of people needing assistance. Fueling this mounting problem are the nations elderly; due to health problems, fixed incomes, and high prescription drug costs, many in the growing elderly population are forced to use emergency food assistance. At the other end of the age spectrum, more than one quarter of a million children are lining up in soup kitchens for their meals. The demands have resulted in critical food shortages for the service agencies. In a recent report, an average of 6.% of community programs cited shortages of cereal, rice, and pasta products, and some 18.% of agencies polled said they needed more canned foods to be able to serve the people depending on them for food. Many of the service programs have resorted to rationing the available food" (www.ptk.org).

Weatherford College's Phi Chapter congratulates the graduating class of Spring 00. Since kindergarten, other people have helped them to become who they are today by providing different needs for their lives, and Phi Theta Kappa would like to give them the chance to help others. What better way to start a new chapter of their lives than by helping others?

All we're asking graduates (and their friends and family members) to do is bring a canned good (or , or , or a whole bagful) to graduation. Phi Theta Kappa members will be waiting for the donations in the lobby. After collecting all cans, we will donate them to a local charity.

Please note that this sample paper on Phi Theta Kappa Helps Others is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Phi Theta Kappa Helps Others, we are here to assist you. Your cheap college papers on Phi Theta Kappa Helps Others will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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To what extent do thinking and language develop separately.

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The interrelation between thinking and language can be considered in three possible ways. Firstly, language detemines thinking. Secondly, thinking determines linguistic developement. Finally, thinking and language begin independently but eventually interact to determine interllectual and social development. Before examining these propositions it would seem necessary to define the main concepts. Many everyday concepts become very complex when it comes to a concise definition and in psychology it depends who is defining them. A general and hopefully neutral definition of thinking is; any covert cognitive or conscious mental manipulation of ideas, images, symbols, words, propositions, memories,concepts, perceptions, beliefs or intentions(1). Language is the use, vocally or sub vocally, of a system of arbitrary conventional symbols by which we convey meaning.

The linguistic relativity hypothesis was put forward independently in the 10s by Whorf and by Sapir. This hypothesis claimed that language determined thought and peoples perceptions of the world. Empirical evidence such as Hopi indians lack of past and future tense verbs, or Eskimos plethora of words to describe snow was given in support of the theory.

The lack of time related verbs could be explained by the lifestyle of the Hopi, or rather advanced societies preocupation with time. Eskimos reliance on understanding snow must play a part in their language construction(how many words do we have to describe vehicles). The fact that Hopi or Eskimo can be translated into english illustrates a basic commonality, every culture knows what water, sky, air, food are. Human needs and basic desires must be the same across most cultures.

The Whorf-Sapir hypothesis is wrong to assume that language determines thought processes. Thought processes can occur when language is absent. There are five cases in history of powerful rulers instigating experiments to test this. The most well documented case was that of Akbar, Mogul Emperor of India(154-1605). Twenty to thirty infants were interred with silent caretakers for fourteen years, none of the children developed language but they had adopted a gesture system to convey their thoughts and announce their needs.(Campbell and Grieve 18). Feldman(et al.)(178), investigated six congenitally deaf children in Philadelphia, where the authorities had instructed the parents not to gesture to them formally or informally(lest this interfere with their motivation to aquire language--their theory!!). Deprived of speech and signing, they developed their own gesture communication system, they could combine gestures to make short gramatical statements at about the same age as normal children could construct two word utterances. William James(180) cites the case of a Mr Ballard, a deaf-mute instructor at Washington National College. Mr Ballard travelled the world extensivly with his father in his childhood before he recieved any communication training. He could recall in his isolation thinking about the origins of the world and mankind and many other concepts.

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Thought can exist without language and there are many activities which demand a high level of cognition but do not require any language at all e.g. painting, or whistling tunes. Language needs thought but this is not the end.

The possibility that thinking determined linguistic development was implicit in many of the theories of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget one of the leading figures in developmental psychology.

Piaget provided a great insight into childrens thinking. Piagets theory gives us stages from which the child must progress with its thinking. In the sensori-motor stage, basic thoughts appear after a reflex stage. In the pre-operational stage thought based operations occur. Planned behaviour begins in the concrete operations stage, with the ability to reflect on these behaviours. Abstract thought is possible in the formal operations stage and the ability to imagine what others may think.

Piaget did not place as much stress on language aquisition as other theorists. Piaget recognised the importance of language but preferred to consider language as part of an larger concept Semiotic function, this also includes imagery, role- play, gesture, drawing, etc. He decided that as language was a part of semiotic function then it must develop later than thought but language profoundly transforms thought by allowing for more advanced conceptualization.

The lack of emphasis on language by Piaget may have contributed to the re-evaluation of his work by Margret Donaldson. In her book Childrens Minds(178) she revisits some of Piagets famous experiments. The Three Mountain experiment, to test a childs ability to decentre and conservation experiments, to examine if a child could carry out reverse thinking(remembering how something was and relating it to how it is). Donaldson redesigned these experiments or reworded the instructions or rearranged the conservation material accidentally. Donaldson et al(175) obtained much better results than Piaget. Their explanation was that they had used experiments that made human sense. They had used concepts and language related to the testees ages. This illustrates that communication must be in context. Further, Donaldson states that the adult testers with experience of language and context unknowingly confuse the child. The point of Donaldsons argument is that Piaget believed that children and adults understood words and their meanings in the same way but as illustrated by her research this clearly is not so. Older children therefore conserve not because of a cognitive shift from stage to stage, but they have developed both their thought and language in conjunction with adults, until the context and meanings are understood.

The above conclusion by Donaldson brings us to the third possibility of the interrelation of thought and language. This can be shown in the works of Lev Vygotsky, the Russian psychologist.

Though very little evidence was put forward, Vygotsky decided that language and thought developed seperately. Further, Vygotsky called language without thought social speech, a reflection of received speech, and a required reaction to others. At the same time infants were developing primitive ways of thinking and reasoning, without language.

Both Vygotsky and Piaget both agreed on the age of two years when language and thinking come together. Words begin to act as symbols and the child can begin to use words to explore its own and others thoughts. The interaction with others is the main thread of Vygotskys theory, and the development of language interacts with that of thinking. Alexander Luria was a pupil of Vygotsky and made a major contribution to the understanding of brain function. Luria demonstrated the regulative function of language in a series of experiments with childrens motor responses to coloured lights. Initially the child followed an adults instruction, eventually the child directed herself with overt speech, the language acting as a regulator of actions. At about five years of age the actions were carried out in silence, presumably the speech had become internalized and the language and thought becomes one (Luria 161). Another important theory put forward by the Vygotskian school is social cognition. Social cognition is the ability to reflect on our own and others thoughts, to put ourselves in the mental position of others. The importance of social cognition in daily communication(the resultant of thought and language) can be demonstrated by people who have a deficit in it. One of the characteristics of Autism is the deficit in conceptual role-taking(thinking yourself in anothers position) ( Baron-Cohen 18b). This deficit manifests itself in the awkward communication of autistic people. Similarly, many autistic people cannot comprehend turn-taking another crucial element in verbal communication.

Thought can exist alone but it is an impoverished system. Language embelishes the system and the more sophisticated the society the higher level of communication is needed the more expressive a language must become. Deep and expansive thought is only possible with the enabling quality of language. Whorfs evidence was from less developed societies, the members of which when inculcated in a more advanced society soon adapt to that way of thought. Piaget gave us a deep and expansive theory of child development but in placing less emphasis on language ignored an important part of the equation. Vygotskys position strikes a balance between the polerized views of Whorf and Piaget. Vygotsky and his followers e.g. Luria and Brunner have given us a theory emphasising social factors in the development of thought and language and a concept of Social Cognition which seems to be the direction of research at present.

(1) Penguin Dictionary of Psychology. A.S.Reber 185

-Feldman, Goldin-Medow and Glietman....Action, gesture and symbolthe emergence of language. 178.

-Campbell and Greive......Historiographia Linguistica...18

The Above two from..The Psychology of Language and Communication.

Ellis and Beattie...186

-James.W...... Principals of Psychology.....180

-Donaldson. M. ...Childrens Minds....175.

-Baron-Cohen. S...From O.U. Introduction to Psychology..11

Ed. I.Roth.

-Luria.A.R. .....Speech and regulation of behaviour..161

FromIntroduction to Psychology-an Integrated approach...Lloyd and Mayes..184

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How much does the character of Gertrude Lodge change as the story unfolds?

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Gertrude Lodge is one of the main characters in the ‘Withered Arm' and as the story unfolds her character changes dramatically. We see Gertrude change from a kind, loving, beautiful lady, to a suspicious, deceitful, desperate, bitter women.

She enters the story as the nineteen-year-old bride of Farmer Lodge. Although little more than a girl, Gertrude is mature and ‘a lady complete,' and immediately on her arrival in the village sets about the duties of the bosses wife by bringing gifts to the poorer people in the parish. She is, however, timid by nature, and has a natural shyness, as is shown by the ordeal of her first public appearance in church.

At the beginning of the story, Gertrude is a well-presented lady with a future of prosperity ahead of her. She is well educated and of a well spoken family. She is very pretty; ‘her face too fresh in colour, but it was of totally different quality soft and evanescent, like the light under a heap of rose petals.' She is young, ‘her hair is lightish, and her face as comely as a live doll's.'

Rhoda, one of the milkers, is very fond of Farmer Lodge. She had his son, and uses him to find out more about his wife, Gertrude. One night, Rhoda has a nightmare. She dreams about Gertrude being dressed in fine clothes but looking ugly, old and demonised. She comes to mock Rhoda. Gertrude's apparition almost suffocates her, and Rhoda is forced to throw her to the ground. Rhoda awakes thinking that everything she dreamt was real. This dream of Rhoda's is what changes Gertrude for the worst, as we see a massive change from the loving character se once was to a bitter, somewhat evil women. However, Gertrude change is not instant. It unfolds throughout the story.

Gertrude is known to be a very kind and helpful women towards Rhoda's son. She visits them at the small cottage isolated in the woods, out of kindness to give the boy some new shoes. ‘In her Basket Mrs. Lodge brought the pair of boots that she had promised to the boy, and other useful artiles.' When Rhoda meets Gertrude, she responds readily to her ‘sweet voice and winning glance' and quickly forms a good relationship with her, which limits on affection. They become close and create a strong relationship. Rhoda is astonished at how kind Gertrude is. Gertrude continues to visit them everyday portraying her affection and kindness.

One day, Gertrude finds a strange occurrence on her arm. It begins to become withered and old looking. When the blight first appears on her arm Gertrudes enlightened and educated mind accepts it as a natural misfortune. Although blessed with good looks she is not vain, for she confides to Rhoda that she herself ‘does not much mind it.' But she does mind the effect that she thinks it has on Farmer Lodge. When Rhonda sees her arm, he dream comes backs to her. Gertrude also sees that Farmer Lodge's attitude towards her is changing, as his affection is not as deep. This does not help Gertrude overcome her troubles, it just makes them worse. Her attention from trying to help others and being a carefree lady changes to the obsession of her withered arm. When the suggestion to visit Conjurer Trendle is first made, Gertrude rejects the idea out of hand as superstitious nonsense. During the following five years Gertrude's interest in her arm declines into a fixation, and she becomes ‘irritable and superstitious,' seeking a cure in the wildest of remedies from herbs to black magic. Her pursuit of a cure leads to considerable single-mindedness and a strength of purpose.

Her attitude changes so much towards addressing everyone that she becomes a one women force, learning that she is unable to trust anyone. She is astute enough to realise that personal appearance is very important to her husband and she begins to fear losing his love. Her suspicion grows inside when she sees all the possible doctors there are, and her arm is still not cured, instead the conditions worsens. This brings out the desperation in her and she builds up a lot of anger in herself. She then asks Rhoda to guide her to Conjuror Trendle, whom she had first rejected. He has supernatural powers of ‘white wizard', she believes that he is able to cure this act of witchcraft that is upon her. She goes to see him and he is able to show her the face that did this and to tell her that this injury does not have a physical cause. When she sees the face she emerges pale and shaken, looking older. This face changes the manner in which she shows towards Rhoda, each of them becoming more distant and bitter.

We can see that this change in character has occurred after seeing this face in the egg white. Gertrude becomes bitter and twisted seeing that Farmer Lodge's interest in her has changed dramatically. This makes Gertrude more and more desperate to find a cure. She starts to lose all power in her arm this forcing her to return back to Trendall.

She goes again to Trendall showing her obsession with magic has deepened and that all her care is focused towards the curing of her arm. Trendall say's that seeming that nothing has worked the only thing possible to do is to touch a dead man who has been hung. She portrays herself as being able to do anything if it will cure her arm. The change in her character this far is terrible already and worse is to come.

An encounter which proves altogether too much for her delicate vitality. Gertrudes unfortunate but natural affliction becomes, for Rhoda, a source of guilt fed by superstition and her own unhappiness. Gertrudes fear of losing Lodges love displaces her natural reason and deteriorates into an obsession.

Although she loves her husband, Gertrude is distanced from him by age and her irrational fears, and is unable to discuss the misery of her affliction calmly with him. She is tortured by the belief that the disappearance of the blight from the arm will re-generate her husbands interest in her, and she summons up all of her dwindling strength to face the awful contact with the freshly hanged corpse.

She is so desperate for a cure that she begins to wish for the death of someone. Here we can see she is portraying the evil side of her conscience, we see that she has got to the point where she is on the brink of committing suicide.

Finally when she hears about the death of someone in the village of Casterbridge and that her husband is leaving on a business trip, she sees the time is right, and once Farmer Lodge leaves, she set off too. When she arrives in the village of Casterbridge, she books into an inn and then out of pure desire she rushes to the ‘Hangman's' cottage to speak to the hangman known as Davies.

After discussions, he allows her to touch the body of the soon to be dead eighteen year old male the next day at a small fee. Once they agree that she can touch the body, she is relieved and knows all that awaits her is to touch the man and be cured.

The following day the young man is hung and he is brought to the back of the prison where Davies allows Gertrude to touch the body. As she touches him, she then looks at her arm and sees that it is cured. With great relief all her anxiety, desperation has gone.

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The Sociological Niche of Emile Durkheim's Suicide

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Despite the appearance of gradual development among Emile Durkheim's works, they might as well be considered as a single train of unified thoughts. When one contemplates his four greatest works, there lies the methodology and belief that all of our characteristics beyond that of the physiological aspect originated from, or are greatly influenced by society. This conviction is perhaps best illustrated in The Division of Labor in Society, wherein Durkheim chooses to focus on the method of interaction between people in the social order.

In essence, the division of labor is the separation of employment among workers according to the specialization that meets their needs. Durkheim's work is especially insightful because he is not merely interested in the division itself, but also in the social implications and changes that it would cause. He argues that as specialization increases, people become increasingly separated from one another. Their norms become different, interests are varied, and subcultures are formed. However, Durkheim does not believe that this specialization would lead to the collapse of the social order. His understanding is that the division of labor instead brought about a new kind of social order which is called organic solidarity. This is fundamentally a social order built on the interdependence of people in society. This concept was increasingly overshadowing that of mechanical solidarity, where members of the society are homogeneous such as the societal organization of tribes. Of course, this division is not without its problems. An industrial utopia does not form simply out of interdependence, because specialization can set people not only apart, but against each other. Interests often collide and conflicts will always exist. Durkheim himself does not believe that the changes happening around him as a result of industrialization would bring about total harmony, but he does note that though specialization sets us apart, it also binds us together in certain ways. Hence, the division of labor will always be one of the most important concepts in understanding societies and is the foundation upon which most sociological thought is built upon.

This notion is particularly evident in Durkheim's third major work entitled Suicide. Recognized as an application of his sociological method, Suicide forms a practical explanation and application of his theories, originally set out in The Rules of Sociological Method. In his aim to establish sociological autonomy, Durkheim considers society as more than just the individuals who constitute that society, believing in the ability to explain individual action in terms of society as a whole. He sees suicide as one of the most private acts an individual could perform, and were it therefore possible to explain that action in terms of society, his theory about sociological analysis would stand. Upon analyzing the text, I feel that it is not able to wholly explain the issue it addresses; yet as a practical application of the method elaborated in The Rules, it is a certified success.

I believe that when Durkheim tries to free the study of society from laymans concepts, and replace them with more scientific ones, he is aspiring to define Sociology as a science comparable to the physical sciences like biology and chemistry. Durkheim applies empirical research and analysis in the new sociological method of which it plays a large role in Suicide. Although this has been done before, perhaps the innovation then is in Durkheims application of his conception of sociological method to the statistics in order to explain suicide.

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Of equal importance to his methodology, Durkheim draws theoretical conclusions on the social causes of suicide. He proposes four types of suicide, based on the degrees of imbalance of two social forces social integration and moral regulation. Egoistic suicide results from too little social integration. Those individuals who are not sufficiently bound to social groups are left with little support or guidance, and therefore tend to commit suicide on an increased basis. An example Durkheim discovers was that of unmarried people, particularly males, who, with less to bind and connect them to stable social norms and goals, commit suicide at higher rates than unmarried people. The second type, Altruistic suicide, is a result of too much integration. It occurs at the opposite end of the integration scale as egoistic suicide. Self-sacrifice is the defining trait, where individuals are so integrated into social groups that they lose sight of their individuality and become willing to sacrifice themselves to the groups interests, even if that sacrifice are their own lives. The most common cases of altruistic suicide occur among members of the military.

On the second scale of moral regulation lie the other two forms of suicide, the first of which is Anomic suicide, located on the low end. Anomic suicide is of particular interest to Durkheim, for he divides it into four categories. Acute economic anomie refers to sporadic decreases in the ability of traditional institutions such as religion, to regulate and fulfill social needs. Chronic economic anomie is the long-term diminution of social regulation. Durkheim identifies this type with the ongoing industrial revolution, which eroded traditional social regulators and often failed to replace them. Acute domestic anomie are the sudden changes on the micro-social level which result in an inability to adapt and therefore higher suicide rates. Widowhood is a prime example of this type of anomie. Lastly, Chronic domestic anomie refers to the way marriage as an institution regulated the sexual and behavioral balance among men and women. The final type of suicide is fatalistic suicide. This type Durkheim only briefly describes, seeing it as a rare phenomena in the real world. Examples include those with over-regulated, unrewarding lives such as slaves and childless married women.

In the context of a Philippine setting, one could consider the parameters and data which were published by Durkheim in concluding that compared to other countries, relatively few Filipinos commit suicide. According to Durkheim, even natural factors such as climate tend to work socially, and in effect trigger the social factors related to suicide. An example of this would be religion. Generally, as a predominantly Catholic nation, there are more suicide cases in a country where most people are Protestants or a nation such as Japan. And yet religion is not a real factor in itself because almost every religious doctrine condemns suicide or murder. For us Filipinos then, it must be the social organization we have grown accustomed to as Roman Catholics, where there is a higher level of integration compared to Protestantism. Moreover, Durkheim considers family as another factor. Filipino culture is essentially centered on that, with emphasis on notions such as extended family, filial obligation and the sinfulness of contraceptives. Since the degree of integration of family structure is related in the same way to suicides, those in larger families are less likely to commit suicide, whereas those in smaller families, or single, are more likely. In general, applying Durkheim's theories could help us grasp a better comprehension of the realities we have to deal with day after day. This does not necessarily equate to an understanding of Filipino suicide cases, but of how our society has evolved to become such a major factor in our lives that it affects even our most seemingly personal and psychological processes.

Despite his innovative methods, I feel that Durkheim's major faults are on a number of quite crucial points. A notable factor that Durkheim discusses in the first chapter of his work is his dismissal of non-social influences on suicide. He considers these factors independently as part of an argument by elimination. He reasoning was that as suicide rates did not show a parallelism to any one factor, the explanation must lie in social facts alone. This, at best, is a tenuous assumption and one that could certainly have a detrimental effect on the validity of his application.

Furthermore, the use of statistics in the application of his method owed a great deal to the number of statisticians who had written them before him. Virtually the entire basis of Suicide rests on these statistics, yet Durkheim mentions nothing as to the validity of official data, nor their usefulness in the study of suicide. The accuracy of his data can be questioned, not only due to the inadequacies of data collection and analyses at the time of his writing, but also at the level of determination of a suicide by a coroner.

This problem is best considered alongside another of Durkheims faults which is his rejection of motive as an important factor. I believe that in times of doubt it is also important as to what the police, jurors and coroners think happened to the victim. It is therefore evident that the official statistics for suicide, and for his theories, are mostly based upon the perceptions and intuitions of fallible human beings.

However, I do not believe Durkheims sole reason for writing the text is for it to be an explanation of suicide; instead he uses it as a tool for the demonstration of his new method. The importance of this text lies in the application of a social theory to a complex phenomenon. Despite his limitationss, Durkheim was able to establish the autonomy of his discipline and that is where, I believe, the true sociological value of Suicide is revealed.

Please note that this sample paper on The Sociological Niche of Emile Durkheim's Suicide is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Sociological Niche of Emile Durkheim's Suicide, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on The Sociological Niche of Emile Durkheim's Suicide will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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