Slaves of the Mediterranean

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Slavery was a universal feature of all Mediterranean countries in antiquity and the Romans also greatly benefited from there use. To ensure economic success the Romans needed slave labor to aid in agricultural and domestic work. In this paper I would like to discuss slavery within the Roman Empire. I would like to focus on three major aspects of slavery how the slaves were obtained, what role in society did slaves have, and how could slaves gain their freedom.

Accusation of slaves came to the Romans by their conquering of other nations. Roman territorial conquest yielded most of the conquered nations citizens and forced them to become slaves. "To enslave an enemy rather than to slay him was a device to reap his labour, but it was also a way of enjoying a perpetual triumph over him; it was at once a humiliation to him and a punishment for his presumption in taking up arms" (Barrow p ). As new land was acquired, the population of the area became the property of the Roman Empire as well. Within this accusation the fallen captives gave slavery its believed legitimacy. "There was, for instance, a pervasive set of oppositions inherited from Athenian thought of things thus, slavery is to freedom as incontinence is to self-control and emotions are to bodily appetite; the slaves is to the master as body is to mind, as woman is to man, and child to father" (Fitzgerald p 8). The captives of the land joined the other slaves of the republic who had been stationed in this position by the same situation as the captured slaves, or because they had failed to enlist in the army or register in the census. Slavery was either a result of captivity or punishment for a rejection of the governmental rule.

Once the slaves were acquired, they were sold at slave auctions under the jurisdiction of aediles. Slaves with special talents were sold for higher prices, and female slaves were cheaper than males. It was cheaper to purchase new slaves than to breed more, and so the slave auctions were always highly populated and well attended.

Slaves were divided into categories of either public or private servants. The public slaves served the governmental state or the public. They were jailers, executioners, slaves to the magistrates and priests, and construction workers of public buildings. The private slaves included those slaves who served in the household or in the fields. The household slaves were organized into a hierarchy of duty and position. The ordinarii were the heads of housekeeping in the house, and the stewards and butlers worked under their command. The vulgares provided any other service needed in the house, and the educated slaves, or literati, were the readers and translators. In the beginnings of the slave trade, there were a small number of slaves used for personal and household attendants. These slaves were used mainly for the purposes of the fieldwork, but as the Empire grew, the use of domestic slaves increased rapidly

The Roman slaves were treated as members of the family unit in the earlier days of slavery; their punishments were mild, and they were given holidays from their regular duties on certain occasions and festivals. "On the Festival of Saturn, the slaves were allowed to wear the badge of freedom for the day, they were given freedom of speech, a banquet where their masters served them, and they were given the clothes of their masters to wear" (Barrow p 5). Slaves were often buried in the familial plots of their masters, and masters would be punished severely for the murder of their slaves. Families of slaves could not be separated, but there was no legal relation between a father and his son. "The children born to a slave mother were also slaves, and slaves could hold no property as all their acquisitions belonged to their master" (Barrow 41). It was beneficial for the masters to treat their slaves well. According to Varro, a prolific Roman author and an elite land owner, "They are made to take more interest in their work by being treated more liberally in respect either of food, or of more clothing, or punishment inflicted on them in some way, their loyalty and kindly feeling to the master may be restored by the consolation derived from such measures" (Bailkey, Lim p 47).

"Runaway slaves, fugitvii, were branded on their forehead, and the later treatment of slaves included whippings, requirement of the slaves to work in fetters, and beatings with sticks" (Barrow 47). Their food was rationed. The manumission (freedom from slavery) of slaves was both a personal and governmental issue. "The slaves could be freed as a reward for a great feat of bravery or service, as a punishment to the master of the slaves, or if the slave was extremely aged, as it was cheaper to buy a new slave rather than to feed them" (Borrow 8). Slaves then joined the rest of society as their social ranking was raised by this freedom, and they would not be at all limited or hindered because of their previous status. There were three ways for a slave to receive its manumission. One way was the census. During the census taken every five years, the father of the Roman household was required to list all of his possessions. Everyhing in the family fell into two categories - person or property. Slaves were typically denoted in the "property" column. To manumit a slave, a master only had to place the slave into the person column. The slave would then be noted in the Roman census as a free person. Another way was vindicta. In a rather peculiar court procedure, a master could release his slaves in a ceremony known as vindicta. In this form of manumission in court, a master publicly denied that a slave was his possession. If no person objected to this, the slave was set free. The third was testamentum. This method is also known as the Last will and Testament. A Roman father could leave in his will a request to set any or all of his slaves free upon his death. This was the most common type of manumission.

Even though a slave was freed it didn't necessarily guarantee them any less hardships. Freed slaves found it very difficult to find the idealistic opportunities that came with Roman citizenship. "In reality the ex-slave forfeited upon manumission the economic support of his former master and henceforward had to rely on his own efforts in order to provide basic necessities; it was possible, therefore, that hardship in the former slave's life could replace a certain material security" (Bradley p 8). Despite of these uncertainties slaves still wanted to gain their freedom and rid themselves of their slavery.

Due to archeological conquests, a great deal of knowledge can be gathered about the general slave system but little is known about the everyday lives of slaves. However, enough is known to give a general overview of a slaves lives. It is understood that slaves performed a wide variety of different jobs, ranging from economic to field labor roles, to being forced into gladiatorial combat like Spartacus. With this span of employment also came great differences in living conditions. It is important to divide slaves into two categories field slaves and domestic slaves. There was a strict hierarchy that was understood by both slaves and their owners, and was directly reflected in the way that they were treated. "This division was one of vital status as it was considered punishment or degradation for a house slave to be sent to the fields" (Barrow p 77).

Slaves in Roman society were given tasks that we today may think of as strange. Many were able to purchase things in the names of their masters, navigate their masters ships and even oversee the plantation. It was of great importance for the land owner to pick an honorable slave to oversee his plantation. Making up the largest percentage of the slave population were the field hands, or familia rustica, who constituted the major work force on the large agricultural and mining farms of the Roman aristocracy. Large amounts of field hands were force to work in extreme conditions for long periods of time. As a result of this incredible work force the field slaves provided Rome with its greatest source of economic wealth. This was especially crucial in the later republic as expansion became less and less profitable.

For at least two reasons, the life of a field slave was a very strenuous and difficult one. First, because aristocratic owners rarely visited their estates, and only spoke with their paid men when they did, the common field slave almost never came into contact with his owner. As a result of this, these slaves were not given the opportunity to befriend their masters as house slaves were, which made the possibility of a better job or manumission much less likely. There were, however, chances for a slave to advance in his rural station to a more prominent and, consequently, beneficial situation. The majority of positions for rural slaves were in the fields, the most stressful that could be obtained. There were some however, such as a diaetorius, or valet, who was present solely to attend to the masters materialistic needs.

Secondly, rural slaves were forced to do work that was both physically and emotionally straining. Field hands were given a life expectancy of about 15 to 0 years due to the physical exhaustion they encountered on a daily basis. Among the jobs they were expected to perform were as ploughmen, hunters, ditchers and forester. Slaves were expected to work all day on very little food and water, and were whipped or beaten when they did not. The extreme nature of the environment in which rural slaves lived is best exemplified by the number of slave revolts which resulted from rural area as opposed to urban areas. Urban slaves had very little to complain about and revolt would have only led to their execution, whereas for rural slaves death was the outcome no matter which route they chose to exercise.

If one was to be a slave, to work in the household of an upper-class aristocrat was ideal. Under many circumstances, the oldest and most trusted slaves were considered to be a part of the family. Furthermore, urban slaves were given better food and clothing in addition to their daily tasks being much less demanding. Urban slaves were chosen for several reasons, but many for their skills such as sculpture or cobbling. There were slaves, especially young boys, "who were employed only for their looks as it was considered a symbol of wealth and status to keep beautiful children as slaves" (Barrow p 88). There were, of course, many other jobs for domestic slaves such as cook and footman. Some households were known to have as many as fifty different types of slaves, who would perform all sorts of different duties.

From all stand points, house slaves were given many more opportunities than those of the field capacity. "Cooks were allowed to take home leftovers from their masters table, children were given clothing made of fine materials, simply because house slaves were considered, for the most part, to be a reflection of the master himself, and offered a prime avenue to further display his status" (Barrow 88).

All urban slaves, however, did not experience the surroundings of luxury that the fortuitous were able to enjoy. Many slaves that lived in urban areas were property of the government, kept to aid in the erection of public buildings and roads. The atmosphere in which these slaves were kept rivaled that of rural slaves in work expectancy and living conditions.

In conclusion, this paper has highlighted the importance and the necessity that slave labor had on the success and longevity of the Roman Empire. We saw how the land masters of the empire relied completely on the obedience and effectiveness of its slave forces. It explained that imperialism allowed the empire to expand and increase in its ability to supply its labor force with the land and the slaves needed to be productive. It explained that slaves were allowed to obtain freedom and gain Roman citizenship and that they were treated fairly most of the time.

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To Kill A Mocking Bird

If you order your Cheap Custom Essays from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on To Kill A Mocking Bird. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality To Kill A Mocking Bird paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in To Kill A Mocking Bird, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your To Kill A Mocking Bird paper at affordable prices with cheap essay writing service! German Finch. What can you say about him? Well, you can say that he is a pretty great character. In the next couple pages, I'll tell you just why this is. I'll also explain my views on this important literary figure. So sit back, relax, and get ready for the "A&E Biography" of German Finch (Well, not really A&E Biography, but good anyway).

German Finch, otherwise known as Jem, was a key figure in the book "To Kill A Mockingbird." This "co-star" of the book is in his teenage years and was mentioned in the first paragraph of the book. This type of literary action is usually used to signify a special role in the story. He was introduced as Scout Finch's brother who broke his arm at an early age in his life.

He is also introduced as liking sports at an earl age. This tells us that he is very outgoing. This is important because throughout the story Jem and Scout get into trouble involving being physically fit. For example, when German jumped the fence to get away from the brother of Boo Radley, it's a good thing he was physically fit otherwise he could have ripped a little more than just his pants.

Also, being physically fit, I think, made Scout want to look up to Jem even more. Seeing as Scout enjoys physical activities herself, having an older relative in her immediate family gives her more to do. In that way, the story involves the two children in their adventures, not just Scout.

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Jem, I think, is portrayed perfectly to be a brother to scout. He is almost too real for this book! If you look at it, Jem acts in ways and does things that most older brothers do to their smaller, weaker siblings; in this case a sister. Basically, he acts like he can do anything and act he wants to her. In some parts of the story, Jem is loving, kind, and gentle with the younger Scout. This is shown mostly in the beginning of "To Kill A Mockingbird." Take for example towards the time when Dill arrives. He's great before he arrives and even better when Dill just comes. Dill, Jem, and Scout form a strong bond. They start to do mischievous acts together. Here comes Jem's fall from grace.

Now the dark side of the character known as German Finch. As you know, Jem and Dill get more acquainted with each other very fast. Their mischievous acts get them both a kick, but to Jem, it's just not enough. Jem now becomes a devious scoundrel of a rebel! His relationship with Scout takes a downward spiral as a result of this. He begins to try and annoy her every chance he gets. He's obnoxious to her and even down right frightening. The rebellious ego of his fills even more with time. Remember the tree house incident? If not, it was when he was staying in the tree house all day. One time, Jem, Dill, and Scout run into the Radley property, and get in serious trouble. Jem rips his pants on the fence of the Radley premises and I feel that gave him an even larger amount of air to fill his ego with. I feel this way because since then, Jem starts pointing out how girlish Scout is. He also stops playing with her and goes off to play with Dill instead of his sister.

Jem begins shows a little "shine of good," though, during the following chapters. I like to term this as "The Jem Reformation," because it's basically Jem's reformation from dark to light. "The Jem Reformation" basically begins at the point when

Please note that this sample paper on To Kill A Mocking Bird is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on To Kill A Mocking Bird, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on To Kill A Mocking Bird will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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What about the women

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in what about the women, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your what about the women paper at affordable prices with cheap essay writing service! Eddy 1

Lee Eddy

English Composition II

What About The Women

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In the two stories, Odour of Chrysanthemums and The Rocking-Horse Winner, there are women described and wrote about by author playing significant roles. The roles the two women portray can be compared in several different manners. Not only can the roles be compared, but also the messages the author (D.H. Lawrence) tries to convey, about the women, can also be compared. What are some of the similarities of these two different women? Naturally one could interpret several obvious resemblances and also a few slightly hidden comparisons. In the following paragraphs you should be able to distinguish some of these comparisons. Especially when reading what the author narrates to the reader in these two short stories.

One of the first comparisons that can be identified is the fact both of the women in the two stories are not only women, but also wives. In the story Odour of Chrysanthemums, Lawrence gives the reader this perception when he writes "They had but to await the father's coming to begin tea. As the mother watched her son's sullen little struggle with the wood, she saw herself in his silence and pertinacity; she saw the father in the child's indifference to all but himself." (Page 17) This doesn't necessarily give the reader a positive marriage message, but does say the

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man and woman have children together. If this were not the case Elizabeth Bates would not see the resemblance in the child she sees. The resemblance she sees in the boy having his fathers' traits and his mothers traits as well.

In the story, The Rocking-Horse Winner, Lawrence tells the reader, in the very beginning of the story, the female character is a wife. The first sentence in the story begins "There was a woman who was beautiful, who started with all the advantages, yet she had no luck. She married for love, and the love turned to dust." (Page 4) In this passage, the message of marriage is very apparent along with the woman's feelings about the marriage. Lawrence also wrote extensively about his own personal experiences. In the comparisons of both of the women in these two stories, Lawrence could have been writing about his own family or at least an experience he was familiar with. This can be supported with a message from The Life and Works of D. H. Lawrence. The author Harry T. Moore says, "His first professional appearances in print under his own name was in 10, when an English magazine published a group of his poems. By the end of 11 Lawrence, then in Italy, had completed his third novel, Sons and Lover. This first phase of his writings was concerned chiefly with recording his youth in poetry, stories, and novels." (Page 18) Harry T. Moore's comment means; Lawrence did write about different occurrences that happened in his lifetime.

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The second identifiable comparison is the lack of having an identity of the husbands. Neither of the husbands are actually characters in the writings, but are referred to in a sense of entity or body. In the story Odour of Chrysanthemums the husband is talked about by his wife, children, and mother, but does not have a verbal line in the whole story. Elisabeth talks about him to the children several times and refers to him when taking to her daughter when she says, "Never mind. They'll bring him when he does come---like a log." (Page 0) She is trying to tell her daughter, in a motherly and wifely way, he will be carried home drunk and he will be home when he gets home. The husband's mother refers to her son also when she says, "Ay! It seems but a week or two since he brought me his first wages." (Page ) He does eventually make an appearance, but he is more of a prop than a character. His dead body is delivered to the family's home and this can be noted when Lawrence writes, "Wheer will you have him? Asked the manager, a short, white-bearded man. Elizabeth roused herself and came from the pantry carrying the unlighted candle. In the parlour." (Page 5) Mr. Bates does not have any other appearances or monologue other than situations like these anywhere in the entire story. He is also just a prop, since it is only his body the men bring home. Not a drunken body, but a dead body instead.

The same type of actions are used by the author in the story The Rocking-Horse winner. The husband in this story doesn't even get a chance to be a prop. He is only referred to as the husband or the father, by the author Lawrence. Lawrence mentioned his existence a couple of

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times in the beginning of the story. The first was when Lawrence wrote, "The father went into town to some office." (Page 4) and the second message, "The father, who was always very

handsome and expensive in his tastes, seemed as if he never would be able to do anything worth doing." (Page 4) All of the remaining references to the father are made by remarks mentioned by either one of the children or by the mother. You could interpret this style used in referring to the husbands, by Lawrence, as a behavior he grew up with or even a learned behavior. He had a closer relationship to his mother when he was growing up than he did with his father. This is pointed out by Harry T. Moore in his book The Life and Works of D. H. Lawrence. In this reference book Moore writes, "But his mother was the strongest influence on D. H. Lawrence.

As he shows in his most famous novel, she turns, after the disappointment of her marriage, to her sons as lovers." Not only does Moore point out the fact Lawrence's mother had a strong influence on her son, but Lawrence also wrote about his and his mother's relationship in other writings.

The third comparison is the similarities the stories show on the relationships the women had with their husbands. In neither story can it be said that the wives had a wonderful marriage to their husbands and in many aspects you can have a good argument saying they both had unhappy marriages. In Odour of Chrysanthemums Lawrence, very vividly, in the later half of the story tells the reader how the wife truly feels about her husband. It seems strange the lack of emotions she expresses and is only explained by the realization of her own true feelings for her husband,

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most notably after his death. He was the father of her children and she did pity his death at the least. She did not love him as a wife should love a husband and she was a little ashamed of this.

The death itself was the eye opener for her. There are a few sentences you should be able to use to justify this interpretation. One of the sentences says, "And her soul died in her for fear she knew she had never seen him, he had never seen her, they had met in the dark and had fought in the dark, not knowing whom they met nor whom they fought." (Page 8) The reader can explicate this meaning as; it took the death of her husband before she could come to know her true feelings. Her feelings towards her husband before his death and at the time of his death.

In the story, The Rocking-Horse Winner, Hester does not show a great fondness of her husband either. She even takes this to the extent to display these feelings in front of her children. In a discussion she was having with her son about luck and how unlucky she had became she said, " I

can't be, if I married an unlucky husband." (Page 44) Meaning of she cannot be lucky herself. She then continues by saying, "I used to think I was, before I married. Now I think I am very unlucky indeed." (Page 44) What she is trying to say to her son without saying it directly is; she is not happy being married to her son's father and she is not reluctant to share these feelings openly with her son. Lawrence writes about relationships the men and women have in both of these stories and his thoughts and feelings are rectified by a passage in the book D.H. Lawrence Novelist. The author, F. R. Levis, has this to say about Lawrence; "Lawrence's profound insights into the relations between men and women, and his accompanying convictions about the nature

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of a valid marriage, and those insights and convictions challenge established ideas so radically that they are resisted---resistance often taking the form of a refusal, or an inability, to attend to

them for what they are." (Page 50) This in short means, Lawrence sees or experiences these types of relationships in his life experiences and writes about them the way he sees them. It seems as if some of the marriages Lawrence saw were not exactly the type of marriages he would necessarily would want to participate in. Or another way one could interpret his thoughts would be, he didn't agree how married couples he knew treated each other.

Another comparison can be made between the two stories is the relationships the mothers have with their children. It is not necessarily the relationship as much as it is the fact that both of the women have children. In both of the stories it is true the mothers are closer to the children than the husbands and sometimes even try to humor or tease them a little. In the story Ordour of Chrysanthemums Elizabeth was feeding the children in the dark and poked fun at her son when Lawrence writes, "I canna see, grumbled the invisible John. In spite of herself, the mother laughed. You know the way to your mouth." (Page 18) Even though Elizabeth is not in the greatest of moods, since her husband is late coming home from work, she can still show the children a little compassion or at least be playful.

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Almost the same effort is made by Hester in the story The Rocking-Horse Winner. She tries to humor her son, but does humoring in a sarcastic approach. The mother's son is talking to his mother when the author writes, "God told me, he asserted, brazening out. I hope He did, dear!

She said again with a laugh, but rather bitter." (Page 45) Hester is doing the best she is able to when humoring her son. You can tell she does not have a close relationship to her children, but still tries to at least acknowledge their existence. You can understand why Lawrence may develop a character, such as Hester, by understanding how he feels about certain things. In the book The Art of D. H. Lawrence, Keith Sagar quoted Lawrence writing, "I have always tried to get an emotion out in its own course, without altering it. It needs the finest instinct imaginable, much finer than the skill of the craftsmen." This is the method he may have choice to create all of the characters in The Rocking-Horse Winner.

Still, another comparison in the two stories is the death of a family member the two women experienced in their lives. In the story Odour of Chrysanthemums the women loses her husband. In this story the death does not come as a big surprise to the reader. Lawrence does not give the reader a whole lot of built-up suspense to the death and the death is identified way before the end of the story. You can even assume Elizabeth knows something is wrong when she does something out of the ordinary. The author shows this by writing, "She had never yet been to fetch him, and she never would go. So she continued her walk towards the long straggling line of

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houses, standing blank on the highway." (Page 0 and 1) When she goes to look for him she is hoping to find him somewhere he is not. This is a way for her to cover up the intuition she has knowing the truth of the matter. She really knows something is wrong, since she went to look for him in the first place.

The woman in the story, The Rocking-Horse Winner, also loses a family member. In this story it is not the husband that dies, but one of the children. Unlike the death in the other story, Lawrence builds suspense into this story. The death of the son is somewhat of a surprise and is not revealed until the very end of the story. The author also does not give the reader any idea during the story that there will be a death at all, so it is also a hidden suspense story. The only inkling of an idea is in a one liner reading, "The third day of the illness was critical they were waiting for a change." (Page 5) But this is only a couple of paragraphs from the end of the story when the writes right before the conclusion, "But the boy died in the night." (Page 5) At least Lawrence gives Hester a tidbit of a heart at the end of the story. She is concerned about the boy's condition and does not want harm to come to him.

Lawrence gives the reader an opportunity is his works with these two short stories to make some comparisons of the women characters. The first comparisons we looked at were the fact both of the women were married. Then we compared the husbands the women were married to. Tied into

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these two comparisons we then looked at the relationships the women had with their husbands. Next, we made some comparison pertaining to the children both women had. Finally we found there was another comparison in the fact both of the women lost a family member. In conclusion, there is some evidence backing the fascination Lawrence had in writing about women in the first place. In the book D. H. Lawrence Novelist F. R. Leavis writes "And again and again Lawrence's art deals with woman, nerve-worn and strained or lethally committed to the man's part, or to contempt for it, or to living in a mode that gives it no place. Or his theme who, declining the life-responsibility represented by the male activity and purpose, fails his wife in a way no love or goodwill can forgive or condone." This quote, in a big way, represents where Lawrence was going in Odour of Chrysanthemums and in The Rocking-Horse Winner.

Work Cited

Lawrence, D. H. "Odour of Chrysanthemums"

The Norton Introduction To Literature Seventh Edition. Jerome Beaty and J. Paul Hunter

New York and London; W. W. Norton and Company, 18

Lawrence, D. H. "The Rocking-Horse Winner"

The Norton Introduction To Literature Seventh Edition. Jerome Beaty and J. Paul Hunter

New York and London; W. W. Norton and Company, 18

The Life and Works of D. H. Lawrence First Edition. Harry T. Moore

New York; Twayne Publishers, 150

D. H. Lawrence Novelist Second Printing. F. R. Leavis

New York Alfred A. Knopf, 168

The Art of D. H. Lawrence First Edition. Keith Sagar

London; The Syndic of the Cambridge University Press, 166

Please note that this sample paper on what about the women is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on what about the women, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on what about the women will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Indian pharmaceutical industry

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The Indian Pharmaceutical Industry….INTRODUCTION

The Indian Pharmaceutical Industry today is in the front rank of India's science-based industries with wide ranging capabilities in the complex field of drug manufacture and technology. A highly organized sector, the Indian Pharma Industry is estimated to be worth $ 4.5 billion, growing at about 8 to percent annually. It ranks very high in the third world, in terms of technology, quality and range of medicines manufactured. From simple headache pills to sophisticated antibiotics and complex cardiac compounds, almost every type of medicine is now made indigenously.

Playing a key role in promoting and sustaining development in the vital field of medicines, Indian Pharma Industry boasts of quality producers and many units approved by regulatory authorities in USA and UK. International companies associated with this sector have stimulated, assisted and spearheaded this dynamic development in the past 5 years and helped to put India on the pharmaceutical map of the world.

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The Indian Pharmaceutical sector is highly fragmented with more than 0,000 registered units. It has expanded drastically in the last two decades. The leading 50 pharmaceutical companies control 70% of the market with market leader holding nearly 7% of the market share. It is an extremely fragmented market with severe price competition and government price control.

The pharmaceutical industry in India meets around 70% of the countrys demand for bulk drugs, drug intermediates, pharmaceutical formulations, chemicals, tablets, capsules, orals and injectibles. There are about 50 large units and about 8000 Small Scale Units, which form the core of the pharmaceutical industry in India (including 5 Central Public Sector Units). These units produce the complete range of pharmaceutical formulations, i.e., medicines ready for consumption by patients and about 50 bulk drugs, i.e., chemicals having therapeutic value and used for production of pharmaceutical formulations.

Following the de-licensing of the pharmaceutical industry, industrial licensing for most of the drugs and pharmaceutical products has been done away with. Manufacturers are free to produce any drug duly approved by the Drug Control Authority. Technologically strong and totally self-reliant, the pharmaceutical industry in India has low costs of production, low R&D costs, innovative scientific manpower, strength of national laboratories and an increasing balance of trade. The Pharmaceutical Industry, with its rich scientific talents and research capabilities, supported by Intellectual Property Protection regime is well set to take on the international market.

ADVANTAGE INDIA

Competent workforce India has a pool of personnel with high managerial and technical competence as also skilled workforce. It has an educated work force and English is commonly used. Professional services are easily available.

Cost-effective chemical synthesis Its track record of development, particularly in the area of improved cost-beneficial chemical synthesis for various drug molecules is excellent. It provides a wide variety of bulk drugs and exports sophisticated bulk drugs.

Legal & Financial Framework India has a 5 year old democracyand hence has a solid legal framework and strong financial markets. There is already an established international industry and business community.

Information & Technology It has a good network of world-class educational institutions and established strengths in Information Technology.

Globalisation The country is committed to a free market economy and globalization. Above all, it has a 70 million middle class market, which is continuously growing.

Consolidation For the first time in many years, the international pharmaceutical industry is finding great opportunities in India. The process of consolidation, which has become a generalized phenomenon in the world pharmaceutical industry, has started taking place in India.

THE GROWTH SCENARIO

Indias US$ .1 billion pharmaceutical industry is growing at the rate of 14 percent per year. It is one of the largest and most advanced among the developing countries.

Over 0,000 registered pharmaceutical manufacturers exist in the country. The domestic pharmaceuticals industry output is expected to exceed Rs60 billion in the financial year 00, which accounts for merely 1.% of the global pharmaceutical sector. Of this, bulk drugs will account for Rs 54 bn (1%) and formulations, the remaining Rs 10 bn (7%). In financial year 001, imports were Rs 0 bn while exports were Rs87 bn.

STEPS TO STRENGTHEN THE INDUSTRY

Indian companies need to attain the right product-mix for sustained future growth. Core competencies will play an important role in determining the future of many Indian pharmaceutical companies in the post product-patent regime after 005. Indian companies, in an effort to consolidate their position, will have to increasingly look at merger and acquisition options of either companies or products. This would help them to offset loss of new product options, improve their R&D efforts and improve distribution to penetrate markets.

Research and development has always taken the back seat amongst Indian pharmaceutical companies. In order to stay competitive in the future, Indian companies will have to refocus and invest heavily in R&D.

The Indian pharmaceutical industry also needs to take advantage of the recent advances in biotechnology and information technology. The future of the industry will be determined by how well it markets its products to several regions and distributes risks, its forward and backward integration capabilities, its R&D, its consolidation through mergers and acquisitions, co-marketing and licensing agreements.

PHARMA SECTOR……….SWOT ANALYSIS

Strengths

· Cost Competitiveness

· Well Developed Industry with Strong Manufacturing Base

· Well Established Network of Laboratories and R&D infrastructure

· Access to pool of highly trained scientists, both in India and abroad.

· Strong marketing and distribution network

· Rich Biodiversity

· Competencies in Chemistry and process development.

Weaknesses

· Low investments in innovative R&D.

· Lack of resources to compete with MNCs for New Drug Discovery Research and to commercialise molecules on a worldwide basis.

· Lack of strong linkages between industry and academia.

· Lack of culture of innovation in the industry

· Low medical expenditure and healthcare spend in the country

· Inadequate regulatory standards

· Production of spurious and low quality drugs tarnishes the image of industry at home and abroad.

Opportunities

· Significant export potential.

· Licensing deals with MNCs for NCEs and NDDS.

· Marketing alliances to sell MNC products in domestic market.

· Contract manufacturing arrangements with MNCs

· Potential for developing India as a centre for international clinical trials

· Niche player in global pharmaceutical R&D.

Threats

· Product patent regime poses serious challenge to domestic industry unless it invests in research and development

· R&D efforts of Indian pharmaceutical companies hampered by lack of enabling regulatory requirement. For instance, restrictions on animal testing outdated patent office.

· Drug Price Control Order puts unrealistic ceilings on product prices and profitability and prevents pharmaceutical companies from generating investible surplus.

· Export effort hampered by procedural hurdles in India as well as non-tariff barriers imposed abroad.

· Lowering of tariff protection

STRATEGIES AND TRENDS

· Focus on R&D

Major Indian companies such as Ranbaxy, Dr Reddy's Laboratories, Nicholas Piramal, Cipla, Lupin and Wockhardt are investing and concentrating on R&D. The R&D activities of Indian companies are targeted both at New Drug Discovery Research as well as Novel Drug Delivery Systems (NDDS). Ranbaxy and Dr Reddy's Laboratories have so far led the way.

· Co-Marketing alliances

In order to increase market penetration and increase their presence in select therapeutic segments, both domestic and multinational companies have entered into product specific marketing arrangements. For instance, Ranbaxy has entered into marketing alliances with Cipla, Glaxo and Hoechst and Nicholas Piramal has tied up with Hoechst.

· Product rationalization / brand and company acquisition

Domestic pharmaceutical companies are following a two-pronged strategy. On one hand, they are rationalizing their product portfolio by phasing out low volume products that do not fit with their future strategy. On the other hand, they are scouting for brand acquisitions and even company acquisitions in order to increase their therapeutic reach and market penetration.

· New product launches

Domestic companies are expanding their therapeutic reach by launching new products in high margin segments, thereby increasing product portfolio and increasing critical mass. However with the introduction of WTO led product patents in 005, domestic companies would lose their freedom to introduce products in the market.

· Expanding distribution network

Companies are increasing market penetration through enhanced distribution channels, particularly in the rural markets. This will increase the ambit of access to modern medicines as well as facilitate licensing of products for MNCs in the post product patent regime.

· Upgraded manufacturing facility

Increasingly companies are in the process of upgrading their manufacturing facilities, adopt GMP standard and getting international regulatory approvals from USFDA UKMCA. Approvals from these agencies would facilitate export to developed countries.

· Contract manufacturing

Companies are planning to set up contract manufacturing and global sourcing bases for supplying bulk drugs and intermediates to MNCs.

· Tapping international generic market

Companies are setting up subsidiaries abroad and entering into strategic alliances to exploit long term opportunities in the international generic market in the next five to ten years. They have started applying for DMFs, product registrations and ANDAs worldwide.

· Medium term strategy is to concentrate on products that are going off patent in the next five to ten years. The long-term objective is to enter higher platform of drug delivery systems & niche R&D.

KEY PLAYERS

The Indian pharmaceutical industry comprises both MNCs as well as domestic companies. While at one time, MNCs dominated the market; their market share has declined steadily from 75 per cent in 171 to about 5 per cent. In order to boost the domestic industry, the government introduced process patents in the Indian Patent Act of 170. Domestic pharma companies were quick to take advantage of this and developed expertise in process development and manufacturing of pharmaceuticals. As a result Domestic companies had a robust pipeline of products, large therapeutic width and depth and were able to provide masses with the low priced quality pharmaceuticals.Out of the ten top pharmaceutical companies in India, three are MNCs. The top ten pharmaceutical companies operating in India are ( Rs.Crores)Company Finance Year Net Sales PAT

Ranbaxy Laboratories Dec 1 155 1.58

Glaxo Limited Dec 1 888. 77.06

Wockhardt Dec 1 841.7 104.55

Novartis March 000 7.1 10.4

Cipla March 000 704.8 1.06

Aurobindo Pharma March 000 6.1 74.6

Lupin Laboratories March 000 485. 0.6

Hoechst Marrion Roussel March 000 47.86 7.45

Cadila Healthcare March 000 447.86 7.6

Dr Reddy's Laboratories March 000 46.01 60.4

Please note that this sample paper on indian pharmaceutical industry is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on indian pharmaceutical industry, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on indian pharmaceutical industry will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Case study of barings bank

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Case study of barings bank. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Case study of barings bank paper right on time.

Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Case study of barings bank, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Case study of barings bank paper at affordable prices! Introduction

In this case report, firstly, the arbitrage opportunities in the authorized trading which was supposed to exploited by Leeson and Lesson's trading strategy will be focused on. Secondly, our interest is to find out the strategy on how to lose more money than Leeson did. As the more we know how to lose money, the more effective control for the investment we realize. In addition, the loose internal management in Barings Bank was also a critical reason for the collapse of Barings and lessons from that is worth discussing and referring by the present financial institute.

1. Arbitrage opportunities in trades

1.1 Arbitrage opportunities between Osaka and Singapore

Nick Leeson was appointed to trade derivatives on the Singapore International Monetary Exchange (SIMEX) and the Osaka exchange, and hence was making a low-risk profit, known as "switching". Obviously, arbitrage opportunities existed in trading Nikkei future contracts in the two markets, when there is different price and it is easy to make profit by purchasing future contract in the market with higher price and selling it in the market with relatively lower price. For example, as shown in the Table 1, on 1st,November 14, the price difference between SIMEX and OSX is 55, meaning profit can be realized by longing the Dec 4 future contracts in OSX and shorting it in SIMEX.

1. Arbitrage opportunities in future contract between Nikkei 5 spot and Nikkei 5 future

Another arbitrage opportunity appeared in the Nikkei 5 futures and Nikkei 5 spot. Firstly, assume that there is no transaction costs, the dividends are received on a continuous basis, and that the nearest Euro-yen futures rate approximates the Japanese short-term free-risk rate and the FFP of Nikkei futures contract was calculated by (results are stated in the table 1)

FFP=Stexp[(r-D)]

Assume that there is no transaction costs, the dividends are received on a continuous basis, and that the nearest Euro-yen futures rate approximates the Japanese short-term free-risk rate.

Where St= spot price of Nikkei 5 index

r= riskless interest rate,

D= dividend, a continuous 1% dividend yield on the Nikkei 5

=fraction of a year from now to maturity. Here suppose the third Friday of exercise months as the expiration dates, which are 16 Dec 4, 17 Mar 5, 16Jun 5.

On one hand, when the actual futures price is higher than the fair value of the futures, we can gain by purchasing the spot assets and shorting the future contract. On the other hand, and when the actual futures price is lower than the fair value of the futures, the trading will be profitable by taking a long position in future contract and selling the spot assets.

1. Arbitrage opportunities between implied interest and riskless interest

In addition, the arbitrage opportunities can also be found by comparing the implied interest rate and the riskless rate.

IRt=LN(Ft/St)/+q

Where Ft= actual futures price;

S= price of the spot assets;

q= dividend rate 1% ;

= (T-t )/65 = fraction of a year from time t to T.

As stated in the material, if IRr, borrowing at the riskless rate and lending at the implied interest rate of the futures contract; if IRr, buying the futures contract and selling short the stocks in the index. For example, the IR of Nikkei 5 future contract in OSX on 7th, October 14 is .4%, which is more than the riskless rate, .5. The profit can be realized by borrowing the money at the riskless rate and buying the future contract at the implied interest rate.

From the discussion above, arbitrage opportunities are significant, but sometimes that is not the case. The trades are not free of charge, there are some transaction costs the traders have to pay, as well as tax. If the profits from above arbitrage opportunities cannot cover these trading costs, the arbitrageur will not proceed the trading. Besides, the data shown in the table is only the closing prices of the previous date. They can not reflect the fluctuation of prices dynamically during that day.

. Evaluation of Leeson's trading strategy

Leeson's strategy involved both buying stock-index futures and selling options on the Nikkei-55 index. Following the Kobe earthquake, the price of Nikkei futures contracts fell sharply. As Leeson thought the price was undervalued and was betting that Japanese stock price and interest would rise rapidly, he kept on expanding the long position on the future contracts. The relationship between future price movements of previous days and position adjustment was analyzed by using the historical volatility. As we know, historical volatility indicates the probability that the underlying security will move a particular distance measured in price on a given period. As shown in Graph 1, after the Kobe earthquake, the volatility tended to be fluctuant and the huge loss resulted became inevitable and catastrophic. Instead of cutting losses by closing out positions as the market declined after the Kobe earthquake, Leeson doubled up on his position. This means that the position adjustment by Leeson was not based on historical market data of previous days and he was just a gambler and tried to hold up the market by expanding volume.

As to option, Lesson executed a highly risky trading strategy known as "straddle", making profit when markets are stable and resulting in huge loss when there is any sudden move in either direction. However, Leeson did not hedge his portfolio and was in hope that the market remained steady in order to gain the premium smoothly. If Leeson tried to use hedging strategy, e.g. Delta hedging to rebalance his portfolio and adjust his positions dynamically, the history of Barings would be changed.

. How to lose more money

.1 Losing trading rule

The reverse of Double-up trading rule

If [CP (T)-CP (T-1)]O, Then 0.5P (T-1), else P(T-1)

Refer to the material, the reverse of Double-up trading rules based on the previous prices to adjust position, can be used to lose money in Nikkei 5 futures more than Leeson over January and February 15. When the closing price of the future exceeds the last day closing prices, reduces the position to 1/ as much as currently held; when the closing price of the future is less than the previous day closing prices, doubles the position. That is, if you are holding 10000 positions of Mar 15 contracts in the Nikkei 5 on 16th, January 15 and the closing price is 145 which is 10 more than the closing price on 17th, January, cut down the position to 5000 as illustrated in Table .

. Losing strategy - Strip

Here taking the Jun 5 option on the Nikkei 5 future contracts as an example to illustrate the losing strategy over the first two months of 15.

Firstly, calculation of the fair prices of listed options is the foundation stone. By HULL's software and the data from table and 4 on handout, the current levels of implied volatility of the two months' historical volatility as shown graphically below Graph 1, from 10th October 14 to 1th September 14. Clearly, the implied volatility, 0.06, of OSX (JUN) option had a significant difference to the mean of historical volatility, 0.1140, of the OSX (JUN), which was consistent with the simple rule that when the relative implied volatility is lower than the average, the option is effectively under priced. Selling the undervalued options provides a high potential of losing in the following two months.

Secondly, the loss also rests with the price movement of the underlying asset, i.e. OSX (JUN). A normal trader makes a personal expectation, with empirical and academic analysis basis on the historical market performance and technical indicators, that the OSX futures market would be a bearish one. Basically, if betting that there would be a profitable underlying asset price movement, the trader considers a decrease in the asset price is more likely than an increase so that he probably to make a profit by purchasing a strip. For a loser with the similar expectation, inversely, he writes a strip, i.e. selling two put options and selling one call option of the SIMEX (JUN) option, which is under the assumption that the position in the futures contract was closed out immediately at the time the option was exercised. The result of the deal goes as follow. Profit from OSX (Jun5) Exercise Price=1000, Call Price=1074.55 Put Price=154.55

Range of Stock Price Profit from call Profit from Put Total Profit

St=1000 1074.55 St-760. St-6616.5

St=1000 08.65-St 0.1 06.75-St

Using the formula, when the price of OSX-NIKKEI futures (MAR) moved to 17000 on the 8th February 15, the negative profit of -616.5 (17000-6616.5) is experienced. So the loser suffers a 616.5 loss in the period by writing an OSX (JUN). (Refer to Guangzhen Sheng's)

. Fooling activities

a. Fool the supervisors within the bank and the auditors

Try to use more complicated financial instruments with compound trading strategies, in order to let as few as persons as you can, including the managers to understand what you are really doing. Make sure you are the only expert of the areas in your company or team and make up you authority among your colleagues or team members. Just show them the P&L and other reports in which you can adjust all the numbers to what they should be.

Try to build up a tight relationship and friendship with all the key persons in each link, which will influence the implementation of your trading strategy. The accounting or financial report department is necessary to help you manipulate the financial statements. So either you yourself be a man in these departments or you should have the leadership of them.

b. Area Differences

Local regulators do not always have the same criteria as the parent authority, and they can not understand or agree with every aspect of the methodology of regulation. So compare with all the details and discover that exits in the host authority but not in the parent authority, vice versa. Then you can make explanations easily to both sides, especial to the parent side that your unconventional or abnormal operations were due to the host authority. (Refer to Shengzhang Jiang's)

4. The lessons from Barings case

It was Leeson, once recognized as a "star trader", furtively created a "error" account 88888 into which he put his lost of unauthorized trading transactions between SIMEX and OSE. Consequently, the account was run up to lose at $1. billion dollars and that eventually broke down the Barings as it could not sustain huge amount of margin calls. But Barings could not totally escape blame. Since the senior management allowed Leeson to control both the investment department and settlement department in BFS, as a result, he was able to conceal his unauthorized trading activities for over a year without detection. Even when the price of Nikkei futures contracts kept falling sharply, the bank placed too much reliance on Leeson and still wired him $1 billion to continue his trading. If the Bank implements well-divided job allocation, and the entire employee take seriously of their responsibility and report to the senior management systematically and authentically. Simultaneously, a series of integrated supervision function should be adopted to audit and regulate the whole operations of the internal management. For example, the bank should set up an independent group of auditors to check the balance sheet issued by the accounting department regularly and also, the members of that group should be substituted after a certain period. Besides, financial derivatives constitute an important part of portfolio executed in banks, financial institutes and Security companies, it is necessary for the management to understand the operations of all the instrument. And also the risk-control measures should be set up for all the trading activities, for example, the limits of the open interest, the limits for the arbitrage activities, exposure rules and so on. Finally, the Bank should develop extensive investment portfolio to distract risk.

Conclusion

The main conclusion in British report is pointed to failure of management to understand and detect activities being conducted within the group

The collapse was brought about by the unauthorized trading activities within BFS-one overseas subsidiary within a large group but whose activities accumulated losses of around 80 million pounds and caused the ultimate parent company, Barings plc, to be placed in administration. The collapse of Barings is an illustration of how a viable and prosperous group can, in circumstances where controls are ineffective, be brought down by unauthorized activities within one of its subsidiary operations.

From the case of Barings, we can realize how important for the parent company to understand and control the operations of its subsidiary company.

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McDonalds

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Childbearing Controversy Abortion in America In the past twenty years, abortion rates have climbed significantly. More and more women are exercising their choice, and with it their rights, to have what has become the most common surgical procedure American women undergo (Tompkins 145). The simple operation is undertaken by one out of every five women over the age of 15, a quarter of which are teenagers. These 1.6 million women come from many disparate backgrounds, from all races, creeds, and classes, but they share one common trait for one reason or another, they feel unready for the burdens of motherhood. This bucking of the tradition of becoming a wife and mother alarms many conservatives, and so, as has any issue of import, abortion has become a highly political and emotionally charged topic. But though it is extremely controversial, when one takes into account the social, medical, and legal aspects it is strikingly apparent that women need the right to personally choose to have an abortion. Abortion became an outrage in this country only after the Civil War. It was then that the American Medical Association, seeking to bolster the authority of physicians over that of midwives, pushed for anti-abortion legislation to limit outside consultation (Garrett 18). Up to this point, abortion had been legal up until "quickening", or the first signs of movement in the womb (Lader 1). Nearly all state courts in the early to mid-nineteenth century had upheld this view that abortion with the woman's consent was not punishable by law. Far from the intended effect of increasing confidence in medical authority, however, the prohibition of abortion led many women to back-alley quacks, putting their lives in mortal peril from these homeopathic "surgeons". By seeking to reinforce their political standing, the AMA was actually endangering lives. Endangering the mother's life, however, seemed to be entirely acceptable to the so-called "moral majority". Right-wingers took up the anti-abortion flag in God's name, claiming the sanctity of life as their mantra. Pope Pius IX joined the fray as an outspoken critic of the procedure, a vocal foil to the necessarily silent sufferers. In 186 he issued his famous decree of the church's position, outlining their point of view condemning abortion. Their arguments hinged on three points of religious interpretation. First, and most weighty, that the fetus is a person and contains a soul. The Roman Catholic Church was a bit muddled on this point, as the official standpoint from the church's very inception up until the decree was that the fetus was not a person until late in the gestational cycle (Tompkins 145). Peter Singer also argues, "The life of a fetus is of no greater value than the life of a nonhuman animal at a similar level of rationality, self-consciousness, awareness, capacity to feel, etc." In addition, Singer infers that potential for rationality and the like is of no consequence in this view (Wennberg 8). Second, that because it contains a soul, it is a sin to destroy it. Third, that the conception of a child is contingent upon divine intervention and is therefore sacred, and humans should have no authority in the matter. Catholic priest George Patterson debunks this theory "Free will is only free within a divine framework. There would be no way to abort a pregnancy if God didn't allow it. (Furthermore) life is a gift of God, but conception is not a result of direct intervention. It is a human act (and) we have to take responsibility for that. And there may be times when responsibility involves terminating pregnancy" (Rosenblatt 168). Another point often overlooked in these proceedings was that the mother was often imperiled herself, through an inability to care for both herself and the child she carried, but the mission of the church was to stop the killing of "innocents", not of the sinners who would even consider the horror of abortion. Adding to the chaos surrounding abortion was the legal aspect. The United States does not constitutionally outlaw anything based on purely religious reasoning. Separation of church and state is guaranteed in the 1st Amendment, and Minister Mary Louise Smith concurs, "it is a religious issue, (and) that argues for leaving the thing alone entirely" (Rosenblatt 17). Many fanatics, as those mentioned above, do not understand the medical, psychological, or emotional aspects of abortion and are merely incensed by the idea. It is imprudent to continue any discussion of abortion without a full and comprehensive knowledge of what it entails. There are many different methods of aborting a pregnancy, though only two are widely used in the United States. The first is dilation and curettage, a simple procedure in which the surgeon cuts the fetal tissue away from the uterine lining. This accounts for most late-term (1th and 1th week) abortions. The second is vacuum aspiration, a more modern technique which uses medication to soften the fetal tissue, allowing the uterus to be emptied by small suction implements (Costa 50). Both procedures can be done in half an hour, and both share a high success rate with few complications. The most common side effect is heavy blood flow for a couple of days after the operation. Both, however, are also extremely invasive, and require a modicum of trust between doctor and patient. The answer to those wanting a more private, personal method seems to be in the form of a pill RU486. RU486 works by inhibiting progesterone production, causing the uterus to slough off its fertile lining. Also, without progesterone, the production of prostaglandins increases, softening the cervix and causing uterine contractions, facilitating the dislodging and expulsion of the embryo (Costa 114). Women who used the pill found it to be more comfortable, with no pain and little discomfort. Side effects are extremely limited, and the entire operation can be accomplished at home, with no need for a doctor. Use of RU486 allows a sense of responsibility and capability, and most patients were pleased with the results. This French pharmaceutical has long been the means of choice with doctors in Europe, and has been extensively tested and proved. Even the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, after reviewing thousands of trials, unofficially gave the pill its highest rating. But anti-abortion advocates denounce the drug, as it makes abortion a private matter, removing much of the need for public abortion clinics whose workers and patients can be targeted (Lader 8). So, with abortion arguments in America still at fevered pitch, the manufacturers have yet to apply for FDA approval. It is appropriate for religion and science to be at odds, and yet again conservative politicians fueled by unreasonable constituents block the entry of abortion pills and techniques into American hospitals. Even worse, funding that could be going to help distressed women is being diverted for fear of losing votes. Yet these legal battles, having begun in the mid-nineteenth century, are nothing new. The modern era of abortion-centered debate began with the Burger Court. The Supreme Court heard two cases in 17 crucial to the movement for abortion rights. The first was Doe v. Bolton, concerning a Georgia anti-abortion law. In this case the majority decided for the plaintiff, establishing a right to personal privacy in such matters. The right to personal liberty guaranteed by the 14th Amendment was also cited in the court's decision (Goode 171). Overshadowed by the later Roe v. Wade, Doe laid the groundwork for abortion rights. It is interesting to notice that both this decision and the later Roe's had a precedent in contraceptive rights. A Pennsylvania case involving a health clinic handing out free condoms and diaphragms (at that time all contraceptive devices were outlawed by state statute) was found for the clinic, as the Supreme Court decided "the state has no compelling interest in violating a couple's right to privacy" by dictating what they do about contraception in their own home (Garrett 16). Both precedents were crucial to the most famous abortion case in history, Roe v. Wade. In 170, a young Texas woman sought to challenge the Constitutionality of an existing Texas statute outlawing abortions. After three years of appeals, the case ended up in the Supreme Court and became one of the longest and most controversial in history. The 7- majority decision upheld the earlier district court ruling, namely, that the law was unconstitutional on the basis of violating the th and 14th Amendments' guarantees of personal liberty and privacy (Tompkins 1). The Berger Court did much more than that, though it set up guidelines for existing and future abortion laws. According to the findings of the court, abortion was completely legal in the first two trimesters of pregnancy, although it could be regulated in the second trimester to protect the health of the mother. In the third trimester, when the fetus could theoretically survive outside the mother's womb, protection of embryonic life became the state's compelling interest and legislation on abortion could be enacted at the state's discretion (Goode 17). The state's interest in the embryo, however, is questionable at best. Lawrence Lader clarifies, "the concept… is that once a fetus is viable, the state can appropriate a woman's body and submit her to criminal and civil liability for any accidental harm... This trend toward control by the state of a woman's reproductive life accentuates the need for privacy" (1). Tricia Andreyszewski concurs, "on the same grounds, would it be reasonable to prohibit all pregnant women from drinking and smoking? Should they be legally compelled to take vitamins and see a doctor regularly?" (75). The court's ruling in Roe could be foretold as a natural extension of women's rights. As early as 16 the Students for a Democratic Society's (SDS) National Council in Austin concluded "women could not truly direct their own lives, control their physical and psychological health, or make education and career plans if they could not control the number and frequency of their pregnancies" (Tompkins 0). The civil rights guaranteed by this and subsequent cases are many the rights to privacy and choice, the right of a married woman to end a pregnancy without her husband's consent, the right of a teenager to keep an abortion secret from her parents, and the ability for abortion clinics to be paid for through state funds (Andreyszewski 4). The Supreme Court in Roe also cleared up one legal point because people trained in medicine, philosophy, and theology could not reach a consensus on when life begins or what defines personhood, the Court also shied away from these issues, except to determine that the concept of "personhood" as used in the 14th amendment did not apply to the unborn (Terkel ). All of these revolutionary decisions met with a mixture of relief from civil rights activists and shock from the right wing. Abortion clinics, the new bastions of freedom, were soon awash in a rising tide of backlash. Pro-lifers, as anti-abortion advocates now called themselves, surrounded and formed human walls around clinics to embarrass and keep away consulted women. Despite this opposition, the number of facilities offering abortion options grew tremendously until the Reagan-Bush era, when conservative politics crushed financial support and sought to nullify those rights guaranteed by Roe. Today, due mostly to pressure from anti-abortion groups, nine out of ten counties have no facilities that provide abortion services (Costa 8). In a 187 Supreme Court case on abortion, George Bush even sent in United States lawyers to argue against the decision and ask to repeal Roe v. Wade (Tompkins 11). Luckily for civil rights, the bench valued Constitutionality over partisan politics. States will not be allowed to make abortion illegal again. Legal and physical barriers were not the only lanes conservatives took; the conflict frequently escalated into violence. From peaceful protests and sit-ins outside abortion clinics grew the threatening phone calls and bomb threats (real and fictitious) that hound pro-choice doctors to this day (Andreyszewski 1). Militant church groups have even slaughtered whole clinics full of doctors, nurses, and frightened women. Terrorism and fanaticism does not apply only to the Middle East. Why are these people so passionate about what should be a non-issue? To quote Roger Rosenblatt, "the woman who does not wish to become a wife or mother is an implicit threat to "normal" society… the vehemence with which pro-life advocates attack pro-choice women is, I believe, connected to that feeling of threat"(1). Since 186, attitudes have not changed much in the conservative viewpoint. Emotions are still highly charged and rights are still only begrudged to women, and whole congregations have taken various routes to ending abortion. Some groups contend through legal avenues, some through obstruction, and some through outright terrorist tactics. Bombings and threats have permeated the walls of abortion clinics nationwide, as fanatical purists vow to kill to stop the killing. Irony seems to be lost on the religious. As comedian George Carlin once remarked, "What is murdering a doctor if not abortion in the sixtieth trimester?" Dennis Miller summed up the dangers of vigilantism in a rant against the so-called "Religious Right" "Im sorry, you just dont go shooting doctors. If a judgments to be made, God gets to make it. Not you. Him. You are Barney Fife. Keep your bullet in your shirt pocket." Rights and lives are being threatened every day by these conservatives. Fervent debate racks the brains of the scholar, the lawyer, the priest, and the layman. Yet all of this heartache boils down not to a social, not to a medical, not even to a legal or spiritual issue, but to a human one the choice to have an abortion should lie only within the person having it. Works Cited Andreyszewski, Tricia. Abortion Rights, Options, and Choices. Brookfield Millbrook P, 16. Costa, Marie, ed. Abortion A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara ABC-CLIO, 17. Garrett, Major, and Penny, Timothy J. The 15 Biggest Lies in Politics. New York St. Martin's Griffin, 18. Goode, Stephen. The Controversial Court. New York Messner, 18. Lader, Lawrence. RU486. Reading Addison-Wesley, 15. Roleff, Tamara L. Abortion Opposing Viewpoints. San Diego Greenhaven P, 17. Rosenblatt, Roger. Life Itself Abortion in the American Mind. New York Random House, 17. Terkel, Susan N. Abortion Facing the Issues. New York Franklin Watts, 18. Tompkins, Nancy. Roe v. Wade The Fight Over Life and Liberty. Danbury Franklin Watts, 16. Wennburg, Robert N. Life in the Balance. Grand Rapids William B. Eerdmans, 15.

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The AMISH, the MENNONITES,

and the PLAIN PEOPLE

Who are the Amish? Are they the same as the Pennsylvania Dutch?

Order Custom The Amish paper

The Amish are a religious group who live in settlements in states and Ontario, Canada. The oldest group of Old Order Amish, about 16-18,000 people live in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. The Amish stress humility, family and community, and separation from the world.

Although Lancaster Amish are Pennsylvania Dutch, all Pennsylvania Dutch are not Amish. The Pennsylvania Dutch are natives of Central Pennsylvania, particularly Lancaster and its surrounding counties. Unlike the Amish, they are not all one religion. Instead, their common bond is a mainly German background (Pennsylvania Dutch is actually Pennsylvania Deutsch, or German). They also have Welsh, English, Scottish, Swiss, and French ancestry.

What is the history of the Amish?

The Amish have their roots in the Mennonite community. Both were part of the early Anabaptist movement in Europe, which took place at the time of the Reformation. The Anabaptists believed that only adults who had confessed their faith should be baptized, and that they should remain separate from the larger society. Many early Anabaptists were put to death as heretics by both Catholics and Protestants, and many others fled to the mountains of Switzerland and southern Germany. Here began the Amish tradition of farming and holding their worship services in homes rather than churches.

In 156, a young Catholic priest from Holland named Menno Simons joined the Anabaptist movement. His writings and leadership united many of the Anabaptist groups, who were nicknamed Mennonites. In 16, a Swiss bishop named Jacob Amman broke from the Mennonite church. His followers were called the Amish. Although the two groups have split several times, the Amish and Mennonite churches still share the same beliefs concerning baptism, non-resistance, and basic Bible doctrines. They differ in matters of dress, technology, language, form of worship, and interpretation of the Bible.

The Amish and Mennonites both settled in Pennsylvania as part of William Penns holy experiment of religious tolerance. The first sizable group of Amish arrived in Lancaster County in the 170s or 170s.

The Amish seem stuck in history. Why dont they accept modern ideas and innovations?

Although the Amish look like they stepped out of the rural nineteenth century, in fact they do change. Their lives move more slowly than ours, but they definitely are not stuck anywhere. They choose to examine change carefully before they accept it. If the new idea or gadget does not assist in keeping their lives simple and their families together, they probably will reject it. Each church district decides for itself what it will and will not accept; there is no single governing body for the entire Old Order population, but all follow a literal interpretation of the Bible and an unwritten set of rules called the Ordnung.

Old Order groups all drive horses and buggies rather than cars, do not have electricity in their homes, and send their children to private, one-room schoolhouses. Children attend only through the eighth grade. After that, they work on their familys farm or business until they marry. The Amish feel that their children do not need more formal education than this. Although they pay school taxes, the Amish have fought to keep their children out of public schools. In 17, the Supreme Court handed down a landmark unanimous decision which exempted the Old Order Amish and related groups from state compulsory attendance laws beyond the eighth grade. Many Mennonites and progressive Amish do attend high school and even college.

Do they speak English?

Most Amish are trilingual. They speak a dialect of German called Pennsylvania Dutch at home; they use High German at their worship services; and they learn English at school. They speak English when they deal with anyone who is not Amish. They pronounce Amish with a broad a (Ah-mish).

The Amish are a private people who believe God has kept them together despite pressure to change from the modern world. They are not perfect, but they are a strong example of a community that supports and cares for its members. They are a people apart; they are also a people together.

Why do they dress that way?

Old Order Amish women and girls wear modest dresses made from solid-colored fabric with long sleeves and a full skirt (not shorter than half-way between knee and floor). These dresses are covered with a cape and apron and are fastened with straight pins or snaps. They never cut their hair, which they wear in a bun on the back of the head. On their heads they wear a white prayer covering if they are married and a black one if they are single. Amish women do not wear jewelry.

Men and boys wear dark-colored suits, straight-cut coats without lapels, broadfall trousers, suspenders, solid-colored shirts, black socks and shoes, and black or straw broad-brimmed hats. Their shirts fasten with conventional buttons, but their suit coats and vests fasten with hooks and eyes. They do not have mustaches, but they grow beards after they marry.

The Amish feel these distinctive clothes encourage humility and separation from the world. Their clothing is not a costume; it is an expression of their faith.

Whats an Amish wedding like?

Family is the core element in the Amish church, and choosing a mate is the most important decision in an Amishmans life. Boys and girls begin their search for a spouse when they turn sixteen. By the time a young woman turns twenty or a young man is in his early twenties, he or she is probably looking forward to the wedding day. But several definite steps must be taken by a couple before they may marry.

Both must join the Amish church. They are baptized into the Amish faith and are responsible for following the Ordnung. The Ordnung is a written and unwritten set of rules for daily living. Joining the church prepares the young people for the seriousness of setting up their own home.

The young man asks his girl to marry him, but he does not give her a diamond. He may give her china or a clock. The couple keeps their intentions secret until July or August. At this time the young woman tells her family about her plans to marry.

A whirlwind of activity begins after Fast Day on October 11. Fall communion takes place the following church Sunday. After communion, proper certification of membership is requested, and is given by the second Sunday after communion. This is a major day in the life of the church because all the couples who plan to marry are published. At the end of the service, the deacon announces the names of the girls and who they plan to marry. The fathers then announce the date and time of the wedding and invite the members to attend. The betrothed couple does not attend the church service on the Sunday they are published. Instead, the young woman prepares a meal for her fiance and they enjoy dinner alone at her home. When the girls family returns from church, the daughter formally introduces her fiance to her parents.

After being published, the young people have just a few days before the ceremony. They are permitted to go to one last singing with their old group of friends. The girl also helps her mother prepare for the wedding and feast which takes place in her parents home. The boy is busy extending personal invitations to members of his church district.

And the bride wore...blue. Blue may not be the most traditional color for a bridal gown, but in one instance it is actually the most popular color choice. Blue is a typical color chosen for weddings by young Amish women. Navy blue, sky blue and shades of purple are the most popular colors donning Amish brides in any year. An Amish brides wedding attire is always new. She usually makes her own dress and also those of her attendants, known as newehockers, (Pennsylvania Dutch for sidesitters). The style of the dresses are a plain cut and are mid-calf length. They are unadorned, there is no fancy trim or lace and there is never a train. Most non-Amish brides wear their bridal dress once, but an Amish brides practical dress will serve her for more than just her wedding day. Her wedding outfit will become her Sunday church attire after she is married. She will also be buried in the same dress when she dies. The bride and her attendants also wear capes and aprons over their dresses. Instead of a veil, the bride wears a black prayer covering to differentiate from the white cap she wears daily. And, the bride must wear black high-topped shoes. No one in the bridal party carries flowers.

The groom and his newehockers wear black suits. All coats and vests fasten with hooks and eyes, not buttons. Their shirts are white, and shoes and stockings are black. Normally, Amish men do not wear ties, but for the wedding they will don bow ties. The groom also wears high-topped black shoes, and a black hat with a three and a half inch brim.

All of the attendants in the wedding party play a vital role in the events of the day. But there is no best man or maid of honor; all are of equal importance.

Wedding dates for the Amish are limited to November and part of December, when the harvest has been completed and severe winter weather has not yet arrived. A full day is needed to prepare for the wedding. Most are held on Tuesdays and Thursdays. Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays are used as days to prepare for or to clean-up after. Saturdays are not used as wedding days because it would be sacrilegious to work or clean-up on the following day, Sunday.

A typical Amish wedding day begins at 4 oclock in the morning. After all, the cows must still be milked and all the other daily farm chores need to be done. There are also many last minute preparations to take care of before the wedding guests arrive. Helpers begin to arrive by 60 a.m. to take care of last minute details. By 700 a.m., the people in the wedding party have usually eaten breakfast, changed into their wedding clothes, and are waiting in the kitchen to greet the guests. Some 00 to 400 relatives, friends and church members are invited to the ceremony, which is held in the brides home.

The Forgeher, or ushers, (usually four married couples), will make sure each guest has a place on one of the long wooden benches in the meeting or church room of the home. At 80 a.m., the three-hour long service begins. The congregation will sing hymns, (without instrumental accompaniment), while the minister counsels the bride and groom in another part of the house. After the minister and the young couple return to the church room, a prayer, Scripture reading and sermon takes place. Typically, the sermon is a very long one.

After the sermon is concluded, the minister asks the bride and groom to step forward from their seat with the rest of the congregation. Then he questions them about their marriage to be, which is similar to taking wedding vows. The minister then blesses the couple. After the blessing, other ordained men and the fathers of the couple may give testimony about marriage to the congregation. A final prayer draws the ceremony to a close.

Thats when the festivities begin. In a flurry of activity, the women rush to the kitchen to get ready to serve dinner while the men set up tables in a U-shape around the walls of the living room. A corner of the table will be reserved for the bride and groom and the bridal party. This is an honored place called the Eck, meaning corner. The tables are set at least twice during the meal, depending on how many guests were invited. The tables are laden with the roast, (roast chicken with bread stuffing), mashed potatoes, gravy, creamed celery, coleslaw, applesauce, cherry pie, donuts, fruit salad, tapioca pudding and bread, butter and jelly.

The bride sits on the grooms left, in the corner, the same way they will sit as man and wife in their buggy. The single women sit on the same side as the bride and the single men on that of the groom. The immediate family members sit at a long table in the kitchen, with both fathers seated at the head.

After dinner, the afternoon is spent visiting, playing games and matchmaking. Sometimes the bride will match unmarried boys and girls, who are over 16 years old, to sit together at the evening meal. The evening meal starts at 500 p.m. The parents of the bride and groom, and the older guests are now seated at the main table and are the first to be served. The supper varies from the traditional noon meal. A typical menu might consist of stewed chicken, fried sweet potatoes, macaroni and cheese, peas, cold-cuts, pumpkin and lemon sponge pies, and cookies. The day usually winds to a close around 100 p.m.

The couples first night together is spent at the brides home because they must get up early the next day to help clean the house. Their honeymoon is spent visiting all their new relatives on the weekends throughout the winter months ahead. This is when they collect the majority of their wedding gifts. Usually, they receive useful items such as dishware, cookware, canned food, tools and household items. Typically, when the newlyweds go visiting, they will go to one place Friday night and stay overnight for breakfast the following day. Theyll visit a second place in the afternoon and stay for the noon meal and go to a third place for supper. Saturday night is spent at a fourth place, where they have Sunday breakfast. A fifth place is visited for Sunday dinner and a sixth for Sunday supper before they return to the brides parents home. The couple lives at the home of the brides parents until they can set up their own home the following spring.

Do Amish children go to school?

Yes...for the many Old Order Amish and Old Order Mennonite children living in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, the ringing school bell signals a time to shift attention from field work to school work, a time to drop the hoe and pick up a pencil.

Old Order children attend one-room schools through the eighth grade and are usually taught by a young, unmarried Christian woman. As a result of the Countys growing Old Order population, enrollment in their one-room schools is surging. During recent years Old Order leaders have been over-seeing the construction of new one-room school buildings at the rate of about five per year.

A 17 Supreme Court ruling exempted the Old Order sects from compulsory attendance laws beyond the eighth grade. The one-room schools restrict worldly influences and stress the basics such as reading, writing and arithmetic. The importance of the community and cooperation among its members are also emphasized

Why dont the Amish use electricity?

Amish people interpret linking with electrical wires as a connection with the world - and the Bible tells them they are not to be conformed to the world. (Romans 1) In 11 the Amish leaders agreed that connecting to power lines would not be in the best interest of the Amish community. They did not make this decision because they thought electricity was evil in itself, but because easy access to it could lead to many temptations and the deterioration of church and family life.

Most of us today would think it impossible to live without the modern conveniences such as electricity and cars. What makes the Old Order Amish unique is not that they get along without modernity, but that they choose to do without it when it would be readily available. The Amish value simplicity and self-denial over comfort, convenience and leisure. Their lifestyle is a deliberate way of separating from the world and maintaining self-sufficiency. (Amish are less threatened by power shortages caused by storm, disaster, or war.) As a result there is a bonding that unites the Amish community and protects it from outside influences such as television, radios, and other influences.

Can an outsider join the Amish church/community?

A local Amishman recently remarked, You do not need to move here to adopt a lifestyle of simplicity and discipleship. You can begin wherever you are. Yes, it is possible for outsiders, through conversion and convincement, to join the Amish community, but we must quickly add that it seldom happens. First, the Amish do not evangelize and seek to add outsiders to their church. Second, outsiders would need to live among the Amish and demonstrate a genuine conversion experience and faith that results in a changed lifestyle. Third, it is extremely difficult for anyone who has not been raised without electricity, automobiles, and other modern conveniences to adjust to the austere lifestyle of the Amish. And to truly be a part of the Amish community one would need to learn the Pennsylvania Dutch dialect.

Why do Amish men have beards, but not mustaches?

There are quite a few scripture that mention beards in the Bible. An example would be Psalm 11,. An Amishman does not shave his beard after he becomes married; a long beard is the mark of an adult Amishman. Mustaches, on the other hand, have a long history of being associated with the military, and therefore are forbidden among the Amish people.

Is the Amish calendar the same as ours?

The Amish use the same yearly calendar that you use. We might add that November is the month for weddings - spring, summer, and fall months there is too much work to be done and in the winter theres the risk of unfavorable weather. Also, Tuesdays and Thursdays are the days for weddings - these are the least busy days of the week.

The Amish do not use electricity or modern conveniences, yet they have this website. How can that be?

This website is not maintained or created by the Amish themselves. However, those involved in this website are directly in contact with the Amish and Mennonites, either by heritage, friendship, or business relationships. This website, and the Ask The Amish feature especially, has been created in an effort to pass along the truth about the Amish and their chosen lifestyle. There is much misinformation about these fascinating people, even here in the heart of the so-called Amish Country, and one goal of this service is to dismiss that misinformation, and pass along the truth. We are not here to make money off the Amish, or to exploit them in any way. Many local Amish people have seen this website, and have expressed their appreciation for our efforts. Some participate in answering questions, or assisting in other efforts. Several local Amish businesses have also joined the Pennsylvania Dutch Welcome Center as participating advertisers.

Do the Amish pay taxes?

Self-employed Amish do not pay Social Security tax. Those employed by non-Amish employers do pay Social Security tax. The Amish do pay real estate, state and federal income taxes, county taxes, sales tax, etc.

The Amish do not collect Social Security benefits, nor would they collect unemployment or welfare funds. Self sufficiency is the Amish communitys answer to government aid programs. Section 10 of the Medicare section of the Social Security act has a sub-section that permits individuals to apply for exemption from the self-employment tax if he is a member of a religious body that is conscientiously opposed to social security benefits but that makes reasonable provision of taking care of their own elderly or dependent members. The Amish have a long history of taking care of their own members. They do not have retirement communities or nursing homes; in most cases, each family takes care of their own, and the Amish community gives assistance as needed.

I think some of my ancestors might have been Amish. How can I find out?

The best source of that kind of information would be the Mennonite Historical Society, which maintains an extensive genealogical library. Their address is 15 Millstream Road, Lancaster, PA 1760. Telephone (717)-745.

What are the beliefs of the Amish?

It is difficult to explain in a few sentences what the Amish people believe. This is a very simplified statement. As Amish and Mennonites, we believe that God loved the world so much that he gave his only son to die on the cross and that through faith in the shed blood of Jesus we are reconciled to God. We believe that the Bible is the inspired word of God, that as Christians we should live as brothers, that the church is separate from the State, that we are committed to peace, and that faith calls for a lifestyle of discipleship and good works. More information on Amish and Mennonite beliefs can be obtained by writing Mennonite Information Center, 0 Millstream Road, Lancaster, PA 1760-144.

What crops are grown on an Amish farm?

Main crops raised by Amish in Lancaster County, in order of acreage, are corn, hay, wheat, tobacco, soybeans, barley, potatoes, and other vegetables. Farmers also grow various grasses for grazing. Corn, grain, and hay crops usually stay on the farm for feeding livestock. Tobacco, potatoes, some grain and hay plus vegetables are raised for marketing. Farming is done with horsedrawn equipment with metal wheels (no rubber tires.)

What is this thing called the Ordnung the Amish live by?

Donald B. Kraybill in his book, The Riddle of Amish Culture, writes The Amish blueprint for expected behavior, called the Ordnung, regulates private, public, and cermonial life. Ordnung does not translate readily into English. Sometimes rendered as ordnance or discipline, the Ordnung is best thought of as an ordering of the whole way of life . . . a code of conduct which the church maintains by tradition rather than by systematic or explicit rules. A member noted The order is not written down. The people just know it, thats all. Rather than a packet or rules to memorize, the Ordnung is the understood behavior by which the Amish are expected to lfe. In the same way that the rules of grammar are learned by children, so the Ordnung, the grammar of order, is learned by Amish youth. The Ordnung evolved gradually over the decades as the church sought to strike a delicate balance between tradition and change. Specific details of the Ordnung vary across church districts and settlements.

What do the Amish think of tourists visiting their area?

Amish people want nothing more than to simply be left alone. However, for the most part they have accepted the influx of tourism as something they cannot change. So far as their lifestyle, tourists have not changed the Amish. It is true that some have moved away, partly because of tourism, but also because of the high cost of land in Lancaster County. Others have opened small shops and are now realizing profits from the tourists.

How true was the portrayal of the Amish in the movie Witness, starring Harrison Ford?

The movie, Witness, portrayed Amish lifestyle fairly accurately in what was shown, but it portrayed a very limited segment of Amish lifestyle. The Amish people have had a lot of reservations about Witness. The plot seemed to be inconsistent with the lifestyle and culture of the Amish. It was filmed in the geographical area of the Amish, but not on an Amish farm. The actors and actresses in the movie were not Amish.

Why are all the buggys black?

Throughout the United States and in Canada not all buggies are black. The similarity of Amish carriages in any given area allows little for status, but speaks of all being equal. Therefore, members of a particular group can be identified by the buggies they drive. In Mifflin County, Pennsylvania, for example, there are five distinct groups of Old Order Amish living in the Kishacoquillas Valley. The two most conservative groups drive white-topped buggies, another has yellow tops, and two others use black buggies. Here in Lancaster County, the Old Order Amish drive gray buggies and the Old Order Mennonites drive black buggies.

How does a barn raising work?

A barn-raising is indeed a community endeavor for the Amish. At daybreak, the Amish buggies arrive at the farm where the barn is to be erected. An experienced Amish carpenter/contractor is in charge and men are assigned to various areas of work. Often the framing is completed before the noon meal and in the afternoon the roofing is installed. Meanwhile the women are preparing a delicious noon meal, sometimes served outdoors. There is always prayer before a meal is served. The children play games and are available to run errands. But they also have a most exciting day as spectators at a truly amazing project of brotherly love---building a barn in one day.

What language do the Amish speak?

In their homes and in conversations with each other, the Old Order Amish speak Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a dialect of German. We understand that it is similar to Platt that is spoken in parts of northern Germany. When children go to school they learn English. In their worship services the sermons are given in German. The German language, Deitch, is also taught in Amish schools.

What are the basic beliefs of the Amish?

Both Mennonites and Amish believe in one God eternally existing as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Romans 81-17). We believe that Jesus Christ, Gods only Son, died on the cross for the sins of the world. We believe that the Holy Spirit convicts of sin, and also empowers believers for service and holy living. We believe that salvation is by grace through faith in Christ, a free gift bestowed by God on those who repent and believe.

One scripture often quoted in Amish worship services is Be not conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind that ye may prove what is that good and acceptable and perfect will of God. (Romans 1) They are admonished to live a life that is separate from the world.

What are the Amish courting rituals?

For many of the Old Order Amish young people, pairing up begins at Sunday evening singings, The boy will take the girl home in his buggy. The couple is secretive about their friendship and courtship. Several days to two weeks before the wedding, the couple is published in church and their intentions to marry are made known. Weddings are held in November, or at the very latest in early December. Thats after the busy fall harvesting season is over. Weddings are on Tuesdays or Thursdays--the least busy days of the week on an Amish farm. The wedding is held at the home of the bride and the sermon and ceremony will last about four hours. Weddings usually begin at 80 a.m. There are no kisses, rings, photography, flowers or caterers. There are usually 00 or more guests. After the wedding there will be a delicious dinner of chicken, filling, mashed potatoes, gravy, ham, relishes, canned fruit, plus many kinds of cookies, cakes and pies.

Why do Amish men wear black hats?

Here in Lancaster County, the Amish men wear broad-brimmed hats of black felt. The width of the brim and hat band and the height and shape of the crown are variables which gauge the orthodoxy of the group and individual wearer. A wide brim, low crown, and narrow hat band denotes the oldest and most traditional style. Within church groups, ones age and status is often reflected by the dimensions of ones hat. For warm weather, straw hats are preferred by plain men.

Do Amish families play games?

Yes, Amish families do play games and read together in the evenings. Parents are involved in their childrens activities. However, there are not long evenings in an Amish family. When the children get home from school, there are chores that must be done. At an early age, children have responsibilities assigned to them. After the evening meal, the school homework must be tackled, and before long it is bedtime. Amish are early risers and therefore go to bed early.

Do the Amish still milk their cows by hand?

Very few Amish, if any, do their milking by hand. Today they have modern milking equipment -- not electric, but operated by alternate sources of power. In order to ship milk, the Amish must have modern refrigerated milk tanks. They also have modern barn-cleaning equipment. Children get involved in daily chores at a very early age -- even before they start school. However, the chores are suited to the age of the child.

Do the Amish practice shunning fellow church members?

The term church members means those who are baptized as adults and voluntarily commit themselves to a life of obedience to God and the church. Yes, those who break their baptismal vows are shunned by the Old Order Amish. Belonging is important and shunning is meant to be redemptive. It is not an attempt to harm or ruin the individual and in most cases it does bring that member back into the fellowship again. Actually, the number of members excommunicated and shunned by the Amish is small.

The Biblical basis for shunning is found in these two verses But now I have written unto you not to keep company, if any man that is called a brother be a fornicator, or covetous, or an idolater, or a railer, or a drunkard, or an extortioner; with such an one no not to eat (I Corinthians 511)

Now I beseech you, brethren, mark them which cause divisions and of fences contrary to the doctrine which ye have learned; and avoid them. (Romans 1617)

The families of a shunned member are expected to also shun them. Families shun the person by not eating at the same table with them. The practice of shunning makes family gatherings especially awkward.

If If the Amish interpret the Bible literally, how do they relate to Christs command to go into all the world and preach the gospeI to every creature?

Early Anabaptists, the ancestors of Amish and Mennonites, were very evangelistic, going everywhere preaching and teaching. This was a sharp contrast to the Christian society in which they lived. Persecution followed and many Anabaptists died for their faith and their zeal for evangelism. In the years that followed, missionary zeal decreased. The church succumbed to persecution and discrimination. Gradually Amish and Mennonites became known more for their traditional practices and their quiet, peaceful way of life and less for their active evangelism. This trend continued until it seemed almost wrong to send members out of the close community to evangelize. Old Order Amish, along with some Old Order Mennonites, have retained this position and desire to remain the quiet in the land. However, missionary zeal experienced a strong rebirth around the beginning of this century in Mennonite circles and more recently among the Church Amish. As a result of this rebirth of evangelism, Mennonites today number more than one million people in over 60 countries around the world and speak 78 different languages.

What holidays do you ceIebrate and why?

Holidays observed by the Amish are the religious holidays Thanksgiving, Christmas, Good Friday, Easter, Ascension Day, Pentecost, and Whit Monday (the day after pentecost). The reasons for these observances are to fast and meditate on scriptures related to these days. We should also mention that December 5 is a solemn celebration of Christs birth and second Christmas on December 6 is a time for visiting and family dinners.

Do the Amish use modern medicine and doctors?

Most Amish and Mennonite groups to not oppose modern medicine. Their readiness to seek health services varies from family to family. Nothing in the Amish understanding of the Bible forbids them from using modern medical services, including surgery, hospitalization, dental work, anesthesia, blood transfusions, etc. They do believe, however, that good health, both physical and mental, is a gift from God and requires careful stewardship on the part of the individual. With few exceptions, physicians rate the Amish as desirable patients they are stable, appreciative, and their bills will be paid. They do not have hospitalization insurance, but they band together to help pay medical expenses for anyone of their group who needs financial assistance. A designated leader in the Amish community is given responsibility for their mutual aid fund.

Do Amish women still use midwives for childbirth?

Some Amish women go to English doctors and have their babies in local hospitals; others go to birthing centers; and some choose to have midwives who will deliver the babies at home. It is a matter of preference. We do not have statistics as to how many midwives are in Lancaster County.

What are common Amish names?

According to John A. Hostetler, author of Amish Society, the most common family names among the Amish in Lancaster county are Stoltzfus, King, Fisher, Beiler, and Lapp. The most common first names for males are John, Amos, Samuel, Daniel, and David. The most common first names for females are Mary, Rebecca, Sarah, Katie, and Annie.

Why do Old Order Amish not like having their pictures taken?

Old Order Amish and Mennonites forbid photography of their people, and their objection is based on the second commandment, Exodus 04 Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth.

What are the differences between Amish and Mennonite groups?

It is impossible to answer this question with a few simple sentences. There are so many varieties of Mennonites and Amish around the world that we cannot cover the many shades of belief and practice among them. It is true that most Mennonite and Amish groups have common historical roots. Both were part of the early Anabaptist movement in Europe, which took place at the time of the Reformation. A group led by Jacob Amman broke from the Mennonites in 16 and became known as Amish. Amish and Mennonites are Christian fellowships; they stress that belief must result in practice. The differences among the various Amish and Mennonite groups through the years have almost always been ones of practice rather than basic Christian doctrine.

Why are Amish schools different?

School for Old Order Amish and Mennonites is only a part of the learning necessary for preparation for the adult world. Children have formal schooling in one-room schools to 8th grade and then have a structured learning program supervised by their parents. Classes in the one-room Amish schools are conducted in English, and the children learn English when they go to school. The teachers are Amish and they have no more than an eighth grade education themselves. When the landmark United States Supreme Court decision of 17 gave exemption for Amish and related groups from state compulsory attendance laws beyond the eighth grade, Chief Justice Burger wrote it is neither fair nor correct to suggest that the Amish are opposed to education beyond the eighth grade level. What this record shows is that they are opposed to conventional formal education of the type provided by a certified high school because it comes at the childs crucial adolescent period of religious development.

Mennonites, on the other hand, have dozens of parochial elementary schools, more than 0 high schools, eleven colleges, and three seminaries sponsored by Mennonite groups in North America. Mennonite families choose whether to send their children to public or church-sponsored schools. Higher education became a vocational necessity as Mennonites left the farm. Missions and service opportunities also gave rise to the need for higher education.

How do the Amish hold a funeral?

Here in Lancaster County, funeral and burial usually takes place three days after death. A funeral director from the local area assists in a minimal way, which usually includes embalming, and sometimes includes supplying the coffin and the hearse. In death, as in life the simplicity is evident. A plain wooden coffin is built. Often it is six-sided with a split lie - the upper part is hinged so it can be opened for viewing the body. It is very simple - no ornate carving or fine fabrics. Traditionally a woman will wear the white apron she wore on her wedding day. In some Amish communities both men and women wear white for burial. The tone of the two-hour Amish funeral service is hopeful, yet full of admonition for the living. There are no eulogies. Respect for the deceased is expressed, but not praise. A hymn is spoken but not sung. There are no flowers. The grave is hand dug in an Amish church district cemetery. There will be only a simple tombstone to mark the spot, much like all the other tombstones in the cemetery - in death as in life, we are all equal and do not elevate one person above another.

Is it true that dolls for girls have no faces?

Our understanding is that years ago, most of the dolls for little girls were rag dolls without faces. The Amish have retained this custom. We believe the reason is similar to the refusal to have pictures of people and is linked to the second commandment. (Exodus 04-6) At an early age children are learning not to have images, likenesses, idols.

I have heard the Amish will place a small mistake or imperfection in a quilt or other handmade item. Why is this done?

Weve heard that many years ago sometimes a scrap of fabric that didnt quite match was used inconspicuously in a patchwork quilt to give it identity. We question whether this is true. We dont know of any quilters who would do that today. Amish quilts are all band quilted; stitches are very small and uniform. But, no matter how hard one tries, the stitches are not all identical and perfect. A quilt may have an imperfection, but it wasnt on purpose.

Do the Amish play any form of musical instrument?

No. Musical instruments are forbidden by the Old 0lder Amish community. Playing an instrument would be worldly. It is contrary to the spirit of Glassenheit (humility), and would stir up the emotions of those who are involved.

Do the Amish look upon the rest of society, those who are not of an Anabaptist tradition, as heathen?

The Amish have deliberately made decisions as to what will or will not be allowed among members of the Amish community. The Amish do not pass judgment on outsiders.

Is the Amish community aware of a television program from a couple of years back called Aarons Way about an Amish family that moved out into the secular community?

No, the Amish community is not aware of the television program you referred to, and therefore we cannot comment. No, we do not know of any Amish families who have broken away and maintained the Amish lifestyle. We should add that we did check with someone outside the Amish community who saw several episodes of Aarons Way and said it was almost totally fictional and thoroughly disgusting.

I know that the Amish dont own automobiles, but in our area it is common to see them riding in other peoples vehicles. Some even have made a business of offering rides, for a fee, to them. If the Amish dont believe in owning automobiles, it seems strange that they would ride in them. Seems inconsistent to me. Why is this?

Maintaining Amish standards, but accepting some modernization to meet needs of living, requires compromise that must not disrupt the social structure. By rejecting certain types of modernity and accepting others, some Amish appear to the outside world to be contradicting themselves - hypocrites. However, from the viewpoint of Amish culture, there is no contradiction. One of the more pronounced inconsistencies is the use of an automobile...although he may not own a car, a member may accept rides and willingly hires an automobile with a driver to transport him from place to place. There was little hesitation when the Amish decided no to car ownership. It would separate the community in various ways. If only wealthy members could afford it, the car would bring inequality. Proud individuals would use it to show off their status, power and wealth. Cars would speed things up dramatically, disrupting the slow pace of Amish living. So, they will use them but not own them, for then things will surely get out of control.

Do the amish believe in gas power?

Yes, the Amish use gas. Bottled gas is used to operate water heaters, modern stoves and refrigerators. Gas-pressured lanterns and lamps are used to light homes, barns and.shops.

Is it true the Amish are exempt from Medicare and Medicaid withholding? What legal basis is used for this?

Medicare and Medicaid are a part of the Social Security system. Old Order Amish believe that if the church is faithful to its calling, many government programs and commercial insurance are not needed. That conviction forced them to testify before Congress because they did not want to receive Social Security benefits. What they wanted instead was the right to look after their own elderly. They were finally given approval, if self-employed, to be exempt from paying the tax. Seldom do Old Order Amish individuals accept Social Security, Medicare, or Medicaid.

I understand your belief in nonresistance and pacifism. Does this principal extend to personal situations where you are confronted with imminent evil -- say a known murderer confronting you and your family in your home? Can you use force to preserve your life in this situation? To what extent? What is the Biblical basis for your position?

Both Amish and Mennonites are committed to a lifestyle of peace and non-violence. Yes, this pervades every aspect of life. However, no one can predict with certainty how anyone would really react to an absolutely unprecedented crisis such as described above. Emotions as well as thoughts are involved and the situation is personalized. Having said this, we would hope that as people who have practiced a lifestyle of peace, we would not resort to force and violence in a crisis situation such as the one described.

We must briefly make several points

1. There is no assurance that use of force would save my life or the life of my family if confronted by an attacker.

. We could recall many accounts of unhoped for deliverances, whether by mediation, nature, or divine Providence, when Christians refused to use force when confronted by an attacker.

. If the result is death at the hands of the attacker, so be it; death is not threatening to us as Christians. Hopefully the attacker will have at least had a glimpse of the love of Christ in our nonviolent response.

4. The Christian does not choose a nonviolent approach to conflict because of assurance it will always work; rather the Christian chooses this approach because of his/her commitment to Jesus Christ as Lord.

The analogy to war in the situation described above tends to break down when we think of the vast preparations for war -- accumulation of weapons, training of the military, etc. War is planned and seldom is aggression so clearly defined with the defense staying on its home turf.

Some of the Biblical references for peace and non-resistance are Matthew 58-48; John 186; Romans 118-1; and I Corinthians 618.

What are the basic beliefs of the Amish?

The Amish believe that

· The Bible is the inspired word of God

· There is one God eternally existing as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit (Romans 81-17).

· God loved the world so much that he gave his only son, Jesus, to die on the cross for the sins of the world.

· Through faith in the shed blood of Jesus we are reconciled to God.

· Salvation is by grace through faith in Christ, a free gift bestowed by God on those who repent and believe.

· As Christians, we should live as brothers

· The Holy Spirit convicts of sin, and also empowers believers for service and holy living.

· The church is separate from the State

· We are committed to peace.

· Faith calls for a lifestyle of discipleship and good works service and holy living.

One scripture often quoted in Amish worship services is

Be not conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind that ye may prove what is that good and acceptable and perfect will of God. (Romans 1)

The Amish are admonished to live a life that is separate from the world.

More information on Amish and Mennonite beliefs can be obtained by writing Mennonite Information Center, 0 Millstream Road, Lancaster, PA 1760-144.

If the Amish interpret the Bible literally, how do they relate to Christs command to go into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature?

Early Anabaptists, the ancestors of Amish and Mennonites, were very evangelistic, going everywhere preaching and teaching. This was a sharp contrast to the Christian society in which they lived. Persecution followed and many Anabaptists died for their faith and their zeal for evangelism. In the years that followed, missionary zeal decreased. The church succumbed to persecution and discrimination. Gradually Amish and Mennonites became known more for their traditional practices and their quiet, peaceful way of life and less for their active evangelism. This trend continued until it seemed almost wrong to send members out of the close community to evangelize. Old Order Amish, along with some Old Order Mennonites, have retained this position and desire to remain the quiet in the land. However, missionary zeal experienced a strong rebirth around the beginning of this century in Mennonite circles and more recently among the Church Amish. As a result of this rebirth of evangelism, Mennonites today number more than one million people in over 60 countries around the world and speak 78 different languages.

Do the Amish practice shunning fellow church members?

The term church members means those who are baptized as adults and voluntarily commit themselves to a life of obedience to God and the church. Yes, those who break their baptismal vows are shunned by the Old Order Amish. Belonging is important and shunning is meant to be redemptive. It is not an attempt to harm or ruin the individual and in most cases it does bring that member back into the fellowship again. Actually, the number of members excommunicated and shunned by the Amish is small.

The Biblical basis for shunning is found in these two verses

· But now I have written unto you not to keep company, if any man that is called a brother be a fornicator, or covetous, or an idolater, or a railer, or a drunkard, or an extortioner -- not even to eat with such a one (I Corinthians 511)

· Now I beseech you, brethren, mark them which cause divisions and of fences contrary to the doctrine which ye have learned; and avoid them. (Romans 1617)

The families of a shunned member are expected to also shun them. Families shun the person by not eating at the same table with them. The practice of shunning makes family gatherings especially awkward.

I understand the Amish belief in nonresistance and pacifism. Does this principle extend to personal situations where you are confronted with imminent evil -- say a known murderer confronting you and your family in your home? Can you use force to preserve your life in this situation? To what extent? What is the Biblical basis for your position?

Both Amish and Mennonites are committed to a lifestyle of peace and non- violence. Yes, this pervades every aspect of life. However, no one can predict with certainty how anyone would really react to an absolutely unprecedented crisis such as described above. Emotions as well as thoughts are involved and the situation is personalized. Having said this, we would hope that as people who have practiced a lifestyle of peace, we would not resort to force and violence in a crisis situation such as the one described.

We must briefly make several points

1. There is no assurance that use of force would save my life or the life of my family if confronted by an attacker.

. We could recall many accounts of unhoped for deliverances, whether by mediation, nature, or divine Providence, when Christians refused to use force when confronted by an attacker.

. If the result is death at the hands of the attacker, so be it; death is not threatening to us as Christians. Hopefully the attacker will have at least had a glimpse of the love of Christ in our nonviolent response.

4. The Christian does not choose a nonviolent approach to conflict because of assurance it will always work; rather the Christian chooses this approach because of his / her commitment to Jesus Christ as Lord.

The analogy to war in the situation described above tends to break down when we think of the vast preparations for war -- accumulation of weapons, training of the military, etc. War is planned and seldom is aggression so clearly defined with the defense staying on its home turf.

Some of the Biblical references for peace and non-resistance are Matthew 58-48; John 186; Romans 118-1; and I Corinthians 618.

Do the Amish look upon the rest of society, those who are not of an Anabaptist tradition, as heathen?

The Amish have deliberately made decisions as to what will or will not be allowed among members of the Amish community. The Amish do not pass judgment on outsiders.

What are the differences between Amish and Mennonite groups?

It is impossible to answer this question with a few simple sentences. There are so many varieties of Mennonites and Amish around the world that we cannot cover the many shades of belief and practice among them. However, most Mennonite and Amish groups have common historical roots. Both were part of the early Anabaptist movement in Europe, which took place at the time of the Reformation. A group led by Jacob Amman broke from the Mennonites in 16 and became known as Amish. Amish and Mennonites are Christian fellowships; they stress that belief must result in practice. The differences among the various Amish and Mennonite groups through the years have almost always been ones of practice rather than basic Christian doctrine.

History

During the Reformation in 16th Century Europe, Luther and Calvin promoted the concepts of individual freedom and the priesthood of all believers. In what has been called the radical reformation, some religious reformers took these beliefs to a logical conclusion; they preached that the believer should separate themselves from all secular activities. One of the largest groups, the Anabaptists promoted

baptism during adulthood after confession of faith, instead of during infancy

the total separation of religion from and state

worship services in the home rather than at church

The religious movements that they founded are called free churches as contrasted to the state churches which were normal for the time. Their groups were simple associations of adult Christians. Most groups were wiped out in wars or programs of genocide which were organized by various governments, and both the main-line Protestant and Roman Catholic churches.

The Mennonites are named after Menno Simons (146-1561), a Dutch Anabaptist leader. They were severely persecuted and fled to Switzerland and other more remote areas of Europe. The Amish began as a split-off sect of the Swiss Mennonites during the late 17th century. Their founder was Jacob Amman, who based his beliefs and practices on the writings of Simons and on the 16 Mennonite Dordrecht Confession of Faith. The split with the Mennonites was mainly over the practices of foot washing and avoidance. The latter practice is based on the discipline of fellow believers as described in Matthew 1815-17

Moreover if thy brother shall trespass against thee, go and tell him his fault between thee and tell him alone...But if he will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two more...And if he shall neglect to hear them, then tell it onto the church but if he neglect to hear the church, let him be unto thee as a heathen man and a publican.

(Other references are I Corinthians 511 and Romans 1617). A non-conforming member would be shunned; the community of believers would terminate all contact with him. Amman took this practice one step further and required the spouse of a person under the ban to neither sleep nor eat with them, until they repented and changed their behavior or beliefs.

The Amish and Mennonites have retained similar beliefs, and differ mainly in some practices.

Some Amish migrated to the United States, started in the early 18th century. As a result of William Penns holy experiment in religious tolerance, many Amish started settling in Lancaster County, PA during the 170s. Other groups settled in or moved to New York, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri and Ohio, etc. They have attempted to preserve the elements of late 17th century European rural culture. They reject most of the developments of the modern society. During the 1860s, a series of conferences were held in Wayne County OH to deal with modern pressures. Partly as a result of these conferences, the Amish split into a number of divisions, including the conservative Old Order Amish and various more liberal groups.

Membership in the main Amish church, the Old Order Amish Mennonite Church is not reported. The other Amish groups are relatively small. Probably the total of all Amish groups would be on the order of 100,000 in states, including about 45,000 in Ohio and smaller numbers in Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, New York, etc. There are about 1,500 in Ontario, Canada. Almost all members are descendants of Amish parents. Converts are believed to constitute less than 10% of the total membership.

Beliefs

The Amish are a very conservative Christian faith group. Many of their beliefs are identical to those of Fundamentalist and other Evangelical churches, including baptism, a literal interpretation of the Bible, etc. Differences include

Their belief in remaining separate from the rest of the world.

Their rejection of involvement with the military or warfare.

Each district is autonomous; there is no centralized Amish organization.

They have traditionally avoided attempts to seek converts. Recently, some Amish groups have become active in evangelization.

the Ordnung is an oral tradition which regulates the Amish way of life. Specific details of the Ordnung differ among various church districts.

Practices

Practices of the Old Order Amish are listed below. Some smaller Amish groups have adopted more progressive practices.

Members usually speak a German dialect called Pennsylvania Dutch (Deutsch). High German is used during worship. They learn English at school.

Schools are one-room buildings run by the Amish. Formal education beyond Grade 8 is discouraged, although many youth are given further instruction in their homes after graduation.

Members do not own or use automobiles.

They do not use electricity, or have radios or TV sets.

Marriages outside the faith are not allowed. Couples who plan to marry are published in late October. They are married in one of their homes during November or early December.

They celebrate the traditional Christian holy days. They also observe a Fast Day on October 11.

Men follow the laws of the Hebrew Scriptures with regards to beards. They do not grow mustaches, because of the long association of mustaches with the military

Men usually dress in a plain, dark colored suit. Women usually wear a plain colored dress with long sleeves, bonnet and apron. Women wear a white prayer covering if married; black if single. At death, a woman is usually buried in her bridal dress, which is often blue or purple.

Religious services are held in the homes of members biweekly on Sunday. They meet in a different home each week.

Funerals are conducted in the home without a eulogy, flower decorations, or other display. The casket is plain, without adornment. A simple tombstone is erected later.

They do not collect social security/Canada Pension Plan benefits, unemployment insurance or welfare. They maintain mutual aid funds for members who need help with medical costs, dental bills, etc.

They do not take photographs. This is based on the prohibition in Exodus 04, the second of the Ten Commandments Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven image, or any likeness of anything that...is in the earth...

Conflicts and problems

Education The Amishs insistence on terminating formal schooling after the 8th grade conflicted with many states laws which require children to remain in school until their mid-teens. Some Amish migrated from Pennsylvania to other states, like Missouri, which had more relaxed laws. A ruling by the US Supreme Court in 17 recognized their right to limit education of their children.

Accidents Highway accidents between motor vehicles and Amish black horse and buggies are a concern to many.

Polio There was an outbreak of polio in 17 among Amish in Pennsylvania, Iowa, Wisconsin Missouri and Canada. The North American population of Amish was essentially unvaccinated against polio at the time. The spread of the disease was halted by an emergency vaccination campaign. This was the last significant outbreak of the disease in the U.S.

Genetic diseases Some Amish groups have a limited gene pool. For example, the Amish in Lancaster County, PA, are descendents of about 00 Swiss citizens who emigrated in the mid 1700s. Because they do not marry outsiders and because few outsiders have joined the order, the community has been essentially a closed genetic population for more than 1 generations. Thus, intermarriage has brought to the fore certain genetic mutations that were present in the initial genetic pool (as they are in any population), making the Amish host to several inherited disorders. These include dwarfism, mental retardation and a large group of metabolic disorders. One in 00 have glutaric aciduria type I; they are born healthy, but can experience permanent neurological damage when a mild illness strikes. More details at Melissa Hendrcks, A doctor who makes barn calls, at http//www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/114web/barndoc.html

Origins of the Old Order Amish

The Amish, called The Plain People or Old Order Amish, originated in Switzerland about l55. They came from a division of the Mennonites or Anabaptists (Re-baptizers). They opposed the union of church and state and infant baptism. They baptized people only as adults at about age l8. Adult baptism was a crime in the l6th century. Therefore, the Amish come from an impressive list of martyrs. They were put in sacks and thrown into rivers in Europe. There are no Amish left in Europe; The Amish were saved from extinction by William Penn who granted a haven from religious persecution in America. Since early colonial days the Amish have lived in the United States preserving their distinctive culture, dress, language and religion in peace and prosperity.

A few years ago they were again accused of crimes -- failing to have their children attend school with state certified teachers or failure to send them beyond the eighth grade. Until the United States Supreme Court in the case of Wisconsin vs. Yoder ruled in l7 that it was unconstitutional to force Amish into high school. The decision was based on the Constitutional legal issues of Parental Rights and Religious Freedom. Since the Amish believe in turning the other cheek and do not defend themselves, the National Committee for Amish Religious Freedom and its attorney William B. Ball of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, defended them in court.

It may seem strange that failing to send children to school past the eighth grade would be a permitted or acceptable practice. But the Amish society is itself a school. They train their young people vocationally -- how to be homemakers and farmers, carpenters, and tradesmen from very early ages. By the time an Amish girl is twelve years old she knows how to cook a meal for a whole crew of Amish workers, and a young man knows farm operations by the time he is a teenager.

The Amish therefore have practically no unemployment, since their society is a vocational school. The Amish operate one-room parochial schools and are taught by teachers with only an eight-grade education. However, the teachers have learned how to be teachers with on the job training by an older and experienced Amish teacher. The Amish pupils have been tested with standardized tests by the U.S. Office of Education, and the pupils usually perform above the norms when compared to public schools pupils in their communities. The students are not therefore educationally deprived. Furthermore, it is difficult, if not impossible, for a non-Amish teacher to teach the values of humility, quietness, and shunning of technological things like automobiles, television, video games, movies and fashions. Some people think the Amish are ignorant because they shun technology, but the Amish are also making profound statements about the environment. They do not use gasoline, electricity, commercial chemicals, CFCs -- all of which pollute the environment.

The Amish live in nineteen states, Canada, and Central America. However, 80 percent of the Amish live in Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana. The Old Order Amish take their name from an early Swiss Anabaptist, Jacob Amman, who became their strict Bishop and taught them the Amish ethics -- Living non-resistant lives (They do not serve in the military, but only in hospitals or alternate service), with brotherly love, sharing material aid and living close to the soil and following the Bible literally. They cite the Bible which says, Be ye not conformed to the world as their chief tenet.

To this day they endure as a distinctive folk group because they have preserved a mentality of separation from the world and the sentiments of persecuted strangers in the land. They wear plain clothing fastened with hooks and eyes, not buttons. Their men wear broad-brimmed black hats, plain-cut trousers and the women and even little girls wear bonnets and ankle length dresses. They generally oppose automobiles, electricity, telephones and higher education beyond eighth grade.

Their congregations number only about 00. They worship in homes and not in church buildings. They do not drive cars or ride in airplanes, but drive horses and buggies. This keeps their communities small and close-knit, and their children do not live all over the world. Family values are important to them. They are slow to change and speak the German language along with English. They drive horses and buggies for transportation. They practice shunning for any of their members who break their rules.

Although many people do not understand their simple way of life, the Amish are maintaining a very profound position. They want to be prepared for the world to come rather than for becoming rich or famous in this world. They would rather maintain a close-knit family life than travel all over. The norms and educational goals of our society which stress product centered, high pressure, technological and secular values are antithetical to Amish beliefs. Therefore, they practice old ways, slowness of pace, simplicity, close-knit agrarian living. The 80,000 Old Order Amish oppose higher education because it violates their morals, their religious convictions and takes their children away from the simple ways of the Amish.

I. Group Profile

1. Name The Amish

. Founder Jacob Amman

. Date of Birth February 1, 1656

4. Birth Place Switzerland

5. Year Founded 16-167

6. Sacred Texts

The Bible is the sacred text of the Amish people. The Amish interpret the Bible literally and directly in many cases which explains their lifestyle. In addition to the Bible there are unwritten rules on which the Amish people base their morals and way of life. The Ordung are the unwritten rules of the church and are not specified in writing, but are known and closely followed.

7. Cult or Sect

Negative sentiments are typically implied when the concepts cult and sect are employed in popular discourse. Since the Religious Movements Homepage seeks to promote religious tolerance and appreciation of the positive benefits of pluralism and religious diversity in human cultures, we encourage the use of alternative concepts that do not carry implicit negative stereotypes. For a more detailed discussion of both scholarly and popular usage of the concepts cult and sect, please visit our Conceptualizing Cult and Sect page, where you will find additional links to related issues.

8. Size of Group

Estimates of the total number of Amish in North America vary. Melton reports 0,000 in 15 and 00 in Canada. Three quarters of all Amish are located in just three states Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Indiana. The large majority of Amish live in rural areas. The total Amish population is estimated at 14,000, but only adults are counted as full church members.

II. History

The Amish people are direct descendants of the Anabaptists of sixteenth century Europe. Anabaptism is a religion that came about during thePlease note that this sample paper on The Amish is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on The Amish, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on The Amish will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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