Examine the ways in which factors in pupils home background may affect their educational attainment

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Halsey et al. defined social class by the father's occupation. The conclusion of their study is that a service class boy (professional/manager etc.) is four times as likely to be in school at 16, eight times the chance at 17, ten times the chance at 18 and eleven times the chance of going to university compared to a working class boy (manual workers in industry and agriculture)

According to a government survey, The Labour Force Survey, 80% of those from professional backgrounds entered higher education at 18 or 1, compared to 14% of those from unskilled backgrounds.

Another government survey, General Household Survey, shows that 66% of professionals had degree-level qualifications compared to less than 1% of unskilled manual workers.

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Smith and Noble found the amount of pupils gaining five or more GCSE's at grade C or above had increased by approximately 50% in advantaged, medium and deprived areas. Although they have all increased, the gap between advantaged and deprived areas has too been increased. This is because a 50% rise of an already high figure is greater that a 50% rise of a lower figure.

Bynner and Joshi compared 11,000 people in Britain born in March 158 with ,000 born in April 170. They found that although a greater amount of people were achieving high educational qualifications in the second group the inequalities between the highest and lowest classes were as great as those in the first group.

These statistics show substantial evidence to support the fact that the higher your social class the higher your educational achievement will be. There are different interpretations for the reasons behind social class affecting educational attainment.

The first possible reason is that of class subcultures. Working-class students with the same measured IQ as their middle-class counterparts are less successful in the educational system. Because of this it has been suggested that class stratification is linked with educational achievement and in particular different social classes norms and values that influence the student's performance within the educational system.

Hyman suggested that it is the different norms and values produced by different social classes that effect student's educational achievement. Hyman suggests that working classes place a lower value on education; they do this because they believe that there is little room for personal achievement and therefore there is less emphasis placed on continuing school past the minimum leaving age. There is also little value placed on achieving a high occupational status. When evaluating jobs working classes emphasise ‘ stability, security and immediate economic benefits.' They tend to reject the risks and involvements in aiming for high-status occupations. Hyman suggested that the reason that a lower value is placed on education and high occupational status compared to the middle-classes is because working class members believe that there is little opportunity for personal advancement. Hyman concluded

"The lower-class individual doesn't want as much success, knows he couldn't get it even if he wanted to, and doesn't want what might help him get success"

Sugarman expands on Hyman's suggestion by saying that it is the parent's occupation that gives different norms and values to children. Sugarman suggests that the working class parent's occupations allow less room for promotion and their potential is reached quicker; the ladder they have to climb is shorter than middle class occupations. Because of the lack of need for improving yourself so that you can achieve more, working class parents attach less emphasis to personal gain and educational achievement. In opposition to these working class beliefs, the middle classes emphasise the importance of educational achievement and personal gain. This is because in their jobs there is always a promotion or a higher goal that they can aim for.

Sugarman goes on to say that there are four main beliefs that working classes have Sugarman suggests that these are the reasons why middle classes are disadvantaged in the educational system. They are

· Fatalism Acceptance of the situation. So children will be taught to accept how the educational system is and will not be encouraged to do better at school.

· Immediate Gratification Want satisfaction and enjoyment as quickly as possible. This means that working class parents will encourage their children to leave education as soon as possible so that they can gain immediate wage, rather than working longer to gain qualifications so that they can gain better wages.

· Present time orientation Focuses on now. Working classes emphasise the immediate benefits and denounce long-term benefits and goals. However it is these long-term goals that encourage people to stay in education. This will further reduce motivation for academic achievement.

· Collectivism Loyalty to the group. In schools the individual is influenced whilst at home a working class child will be socialised to believe that the group is more important. This causes conflict between beliefs and the educational system.

However Sugarman can be criticised on the basis of methodology. The values suggested by Sugarman about the working classes are observed. It therefore could be said that if the circumstances were different then the values portrayed could also be different. For example, working classes might be being realistic rather than fatalistic. They might postpone gratification if they had the resources available so that they could postpone it. They might be future oriented if the opportunities for successful future planning were accessible.

Using this point of view it could be said that working classes portray the same norms and values as any other members of society its just their circumstances that prevent them displaying them in the same way as middle class members.

Another criticism is that both Hyman and Sugarman's findings are based on questionnaires or interviews. Questionnaires and interviews may not provide accurate information on how they might react in other circumstances.

Finally, their studies can be criticised because similarities between social classes are often ignored and the differences emphasised by sociologists, this could be the same for Hyman and Sugarman.

The above criticisms can also be applied to Douglas' study. Douglas related educational attainment to a variety of factors, including the quality of the school, the size of the family and the student's health. The parent's interest in the child's education appeared to be the most important factor. He found that middle class parents expressed a higher amount of interest than working class parents. As the child grew older, parental interest and encouragement became more and more important. Douglas suggested that the higher the interest and encouragement the higher the educational attainment was. He suggested that norms and values are given to us during early socialisation. This means that infants have already got an understanding of norms and values before they reach secondary socialisation. Middle class children received more attention and stimulus from their parents compared to working class children. This means that from the start middle class children are achieving higher than working class children.

One criticism of Douglas' findings is that working class parents may not be less interested in their children's education just because they don't visit their child's school as often as their middle class counterparts. Working class parents might not have time to visit their child's school due to the demands of their job, working classes work longer, and less stable hours unlike their middle class counterparts who tend to work 5, Monday Friday.

Also the National Child Development Study found that 8% of middle class children attend a school with good parent/teacher relations compared to 75% of working class children. This means that working class parents may be put off visiting their child's school due to the way that teachers interact with them.

Another sociologist is Bernstein; he moves away form the idea that it is the norms and values of a social class that cause educational attainment differences. He argues that the difference is due to speech patterns. Bernstein suggests that the working classes use restricted codes whereas the middle classes use elaborated codes. Restricted codes are a kind of shorthand speech. Those who talk with restricted codes have so much in common that they have no need to make meanings explicit in their speech. Therefore restricted codes are perceived as inarticulate. Bernstein stated that restricted codes are characterised as ‘ short, grammatically simple, often unfinished sentences.'

In contrast to restricted codes, elaborated codes explicitly verbalize the meanings that are taken for granted in restricted codes. It fills in the detail, spells out the relationships, and provides the explanations that are left out by restricted codes.

In schools, Bernstein suggests that only elaborated codes are used, therefore leaving working class children disadvantaged.

Bernstein's idea of speech patterns can be criticised because Bernstein's class varies, at times he talks about the working class in general and at others he talks specifically about the lower working class. He lumps together all non-manual workers into a middle class whose members from top to bottom appear equally proficient in handling elaborated codes. Therefore he ignores possible variety within classes.

Bernstein is also criticised because he shows little evidence supporting the existence of elaborated and restricted codes.

Hyman, Sugarman, Douglas and Bernstein all support the idea of subcultural differences between social classes, which may be the cause for different educational attainment between social classes.

Another theory that attempts to identify the reason for different educational attainment between social classes is that of cultural deprivation. The theory of cultural deprivation is derived from the idea of standards deteriorating the lower down the class system you go. This theory states that the sub-culture of low-income groups is deprived or deficient in certain areas, this accounts for the low educational attainment of members of its group. Cultural deprivation places blame on the children, their family, their neighbourhood, and the subculture of their social group.

The culturally deprived child is not only poverty-stricken economically but culturally as well. They lack important skills, attitudes and values that are necessary for high educational attainment. The skills that culturally deprived children lack include linguistic deprivation, experiential, cognitive and personality deficiencies and a range of ‘substandard' attitudes, norms and values.

When the tripartite system was replaced by the comprehensive system it was generally believed that equality of opportunity would exist because access to all areas of education was freely available to everyone. However the emphasis has changed from equality of access to equality of educational attainment.

According from the cultural deprivation theory, equality of opportunity can only be reached if the education system took into account the deprivations and deficiencies of low-income groups.

The idea of positive discrimination arose from the above thinking. This is the idea that culturally deprived children must be given a helping hand to compete on equal terms with other children. This took the form of compensatory education additional educational provision for the culturally deprived.

Cultural deprivation theory has been attacked for acting as a smokescreen, which disguises the real factors that prevent equality of educational opportunity. By placing blame on the child and his or her background, it diverts attention from the deficiencies of the educational system.

Cultural deprivation theory can also be criticised for assuming or implying that higher-class cultures are superior to working-class cultures, and therefore placing the blame for the failure of their children in education on themselves.

Bourdieu's cultural capital theory is different to the cultural deprivation theory because it is strongly influenced by Marxism. Higher social class cultures are not assumed to be superior to working class cultures. Bourdieu argues that different education attainment between different social classes is the fault of the education system and not the working-class culture.

Bourdieu believes that the culture of the dominant class is reproduced through society as a whole. However there is no way of telling whether the dominant class culture is better or worse. Bourdieu refers to the dominant class culture as cultural capital. He does this because through the education system it can be translated into power and wealth. Cultural capital is not distributed evenly throughout the class structure, and this accounts largely for class differences in educational attainment. Students from an upper-class background have an automatic advantage because they have been socialized into the dominant culture.

Bourdieu's work on cultural capital was influential to Ball, Bowe and Gewirtz. Ball et al. suggest that middle-class parents are in a better position to assure that their children go to the school of their choice. The reasons for this are

· Middle-class parents possess cultural capital They are more likely than working class parents to have the knowledge or contacts to ‘play the system'. Middle class parents strategies include attempting to make and impression with the head teacher at open days; making a private appointment to meet the head teacher; knowing how to mount a successful appeal; and putting in multiple applications.

· Middle-class parents can manipulate the system they spend a lot of time and effort researching and visiting schools along with multiple applications and appealing. Middle-class parents have their stamina ‘sustained by knowledge, contacts, time and money' whereas working-class parents lack these assets.

· Material advantage Middle classes have material advantages over their working class counterparts as well. They are outlined by Ball et al. as

o Middle class parents can afford to pay for public transport that is needed so that they can send their children to more distant schools. They are also more likely to have cars so that they can take their children to school.

o They are more likely to be in the financial position to move house so that they live in the immediate catchment area of a successful school with a good reputation.

o They are much more likely to be able to afford extra help or tutoring for their child. They are also in a far better position to pay to have their child privately educated.

o Middle-class parents are in a better position to pay for childcare for younger children so that they are left available to take their older children to distant schools.

Ball et al.'s study illustrates how the cultural factors that Bourdieu identified can have an affect on class differences in education.

Boudon argues that inequality of educational opportunity is due to material inequality between social classes. Boudon uses the term position theory to explain the fact that even if there weren't any subcultural differences between social classes, the fact that people start in different positions in society will produce inequality of educational opportunity.

An example of this is that the costs of living for a working-class and an upper middle-class boy following the same educational course is very different, simply because their starting positions are different. If the upper middle-class boy chose a vocational course such as catering or building, his choice would probably lead to social demotion. The career that he would pursue is of a lower status than that of his father. However if the working-class boy chose a similar course, the course might lead to social promotion, it would be compared to the occupational status of his father. Therefore there is a greater pressure on the upper middle-class boy to select a higher-level educational course, if only to keep his present social position.

Boudon suggests that family and peer group solidarity is affected by course selection. If a working-class boy chooses to become a barrister and follows the required courses, this would tend to weaken both family and peer group solidarity. He would be continuing his education when most of his peers would be going to work, therefore he would be moving in different circles and living a different lifestyle. In contrast to this, if a upper middle-class boy chose the same path he would probably be aiming for a job at the same level at most of his peers. His family solidarity would be increased as well because his future occupation will be of a similar status to that of his fathers. Again, the position of both of those boys in their social class affects the boy's individual career path.

Cultural deprivation theory, cultural capital theory and Boudon's positional theory all attribute great emphasis on cultural factors. However another perspective is that material factors are the main influence in regards to the different educational attainment between different social classes.

Smith and Noble suggest that money is the main reason for the different educational attainment between social classes. They argue that lower classes may lack the money that is needed to provide their children with the educational opportunities that middle- and upper class parents provide.

Smith and Noble suggest that marketization increases polarization between successful, well-resourced schools in affluent areas and under-subscribed, poorly resourced schools in poor areas. Marketization is control by market forces. An example as to why this is important is that if a book is vital for a course but its expensive only those who can afford it will be able to use it, therefore limiting the available knowledge. This is only a little example but if multiple books are needed for many courses, the expense builds up and it may be difficult for lower social classes to be able to pay for the books, and because of this the individual is unlikely to choose the course. Therefore marketization increases the educational attainment differences between social classes.

Smith and Noble point out that there are also hidden costs. These include school clothing, meals, transport to and from school and sometimes equipment, materials and school trips. There are previsions to help supply these to children but there have been cut backs. Poor children are entitled to grants but they are not compulsory. This might affect the child's education because they would have to make do with second-rate material and not go on school trips. This therefore means that their educational experience wont be as rich as those who come from higher class backgrounds who can afford new equipment and can afford to go on school trips.

In conclusion, I think that subcultural, cultural and material factors all affect the different educational attainment found between different social classes. Halsey et al. found supporting evidence, they argued that parent's attitudes to education and the level of the parent's education (family climate) affected the child when deciding what type of secondary school the child should attend. However once the child was at school family climate didn't affect the child's progress very much. Also they found that material circumstances affected how long the child stayed in school. Material disadvantage was more important than family climate when making this decision.

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Chocolat

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Claire Denis's maiden film Chocolat opens on a wide gray slice of sea and sky. Two silhouettes distantly at play in the surf do little to relieve the visual anomie. The camera curves slowly rightward, away from drear emptiness toward green-fringed shore, to stop at a young white woman, watching. Cut to closeup a child lazes on his back in the sand, a transparent skin of seawater rising to caress, then slide away from his rich brown flesh. Soon a grown man lies down beside him, and together their bodies form a dark continent that fills Denis's frame, anchoring our (and the observing woman's) gaze. In effortless, elegant cinematic diction, Denis makes us experience how, for this as-yet-unidentified voyeur, people of colorcolor itselfsignal harbor, a homeport that draws her in from those washed-out, undemarcated spaces at the horizon, back into childhood memory of a perfect life in French-governed West Africa during the 150's.

Chocolat's vehicle for time-travel is in the present, a young woman lacking in substance, a bit distracted and adrift as if she's misplaced her life's Baedeker. Clutching her father's old sketchbook of African scenes like a compass that has ceased to point true north, the adult France (Mireille Perrier) trips into the past, where she seems at first only audience to a quiet playing-out of paradise lost. The little girl France (Ccile Ducasse) first learns and is exiled from the color of home in the last house on earth, as the previous colonialistsdefeated Germans who now lie in a nearby graveyarddubbed the sprawling bungalow that stands so solitarily in the Cameroons flatlands. But Chocolat ('88), like Denis's No Fear, No Die (S'en fout la mort) ('0; U.S. '), ultimately shapes itself into a potent morality play that climaxes with the rupture of uniquely symbiotic relationshipsbetween France and the black houseboy Prote (Isaach de Bankol) in the first film, between money-minder Dah (Bankol) and Jocelyn the cockfighter (Alex Descas) in the secondpropelling the witness into motion, out on the road as a lost or found soul.

Chocolat is all devouring space, sunbaked, scrubby expanses that eat away at the substantiality of figures in the landscape, and at the forms on which whites depend for emotional and social orientation. Visually, Prote stands out, solidly inhabiting his strong, dark body, filling out his flesh with no slack. The whites seem less at home in their skins, fallen away from or unsure of their true shapes, and thus more reliant on layers that signal identity. Luc (Jean-Claude Adelin), the ex-seminarian who infects France's Eden, reads an account of the violent vertigo experienced by those cast back into enclaves of whites after having lived among blacks for a long time The white skin color evokes something akin to death.

For Aime, France's mother (Giulia Boschi), Prote becomes a kind of axis around which she orbits, though the motion is always masked by the protocols of châtelaine and houseboy. In the willed silences and the kind of sexual suspension maintained between them, Aime and Prote guard a necessary order and equilibrium. That balance eventually collapses, done in by a fallen priest's killing honesty. By naming out loud the existential dynamics of color and by making himself at home in spaces reserved for members of each race, Luc uncontains the players and their stage, so that they become vulnerable to an African landscape, i.e., state of mind, that leaches them of vitality and any sense of direction. Aime crouches in the darkness, reaching out to grasp Prote's ankle as he closes the shutters on African nightas though she might fall off the world without the lifeline of his flesh. But that connection would hamstring the black man, and he rejects it.

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Pretty woman is an appropriation of Pygmalion

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Our staff of freelance writers includes over 120 experts proficient in Pretty woman is an appropriation of Pygmalion, therefore you can rest assured that your assignment will be handled by only top rated specialists. Order your Pretty woman is an appropriation of Pygmalion paper at affordable prices with cheap essay writing service! Pretty Woman is an appropriation of the play by Bernard Shaw called Pygmalion, because it's characters, plot and central theme can all be closely linked. Both Vivian Ward's and Eliza Doolittle's transformation into society's ‘ideal women' undertakes the same central journey, with pivotal moments in character development similar to each other. Both women come from disadvantaged backgrounds, and through the help of their male counterparts, in the text, achieve confidence and self worth. Through the women's evolution of self, the narrative also enables the reader to see the society in which the characters are constructed, and how through the female's transformation society's attitudes towards the women are revealed. At their introduction into the texts, Edward Lewis and Henry Higgins both have no intention of ‘letting a woman into their life' but the major difference in the two texts is the transformation of the men's opinions. While Vivian's influence on Edward reaps a positive effect on his character, Higgins steadfastly retains his obstinate and stubborn nature.

Both Professor Higgins and Edward Lewis come from affluent and high-ranking social classes, where respect and power is earned through their education and high socio-economic status. In the first scene in Pygmalion, Professor Higgins is surrounded by all social classes as he observes their speech outside Convent Garden. As he begins to interact with the people in his surroundings, they are able to tell he is a gentleman, as the bystander notes ‘he's a gentleman, look at his boots'. Not only does this statement confirm Higgins' status in the social hierarchy but also portrays the message that in this realm, a person's dress is used as an indicator of their position in society. Higgins himself, as Professor of Phonetics, is successful at his occupation, this being deduced as he says to Pickering when questioned about whether his employment earns him a living, ‘Oh yes, quite a fat one.' He further elaborates by describing why his profession is so fruitful ‘This is an age of upstarts. Men begin in Kentish Town with 80 pounds a year, and end in Park Lane with a hundred thousand. They want to drop Kentish Town; but they give themselves away every time they open their mouths'.

Edward Lewis, moreover, is introduced in the text Pretty Woman, as a successful asset stripper who ‘buys companies and sells off the pieces'. Edward's social status is displayed by his ability to reside in the exclusive Regent Beverly Wiltshire Hotel. Through its luxurious setting, the Hotel depicts the notion that its residents would be very wealthy. Edward has been highly educated which is disclosed when Vivian and Edward discuss their schooling years, Edward tells Vivian he ‘went all the way', indicating he had extensive education, especially in comparison to Vivian. Edward must have had a privileged childhood as his ‘first car was a limousine' and his money earns him respect and power with his peers, such as Phillip Stuckey who says ‘I have pledged my life to you'. As Edward notes the influence of wealth when taking Vivian shopping, ‘stores aren't nice to people, they're nice to credit cards'. Edward earns Vivian the reverence of the store managers by telling them that he was going ‘to spend an obscene amount of money, so we are going to need a lot more help sucking up to us'.

In comparison, Eliza and Vivian come from poorer, almost poverty-stricken backgrounds, both selling their wares in order to eke out a living. Eliza sells flowers in order to make money but she is not very successful at her occupation, ingratiating herself to passersby at Convent Garden. She is not ‘a romantic figure' but this is probably a product of her poverty as Eliza's features are ‘no worse' than the other ladies at Convent Garden but is ‘very dirty' in comparison to them. Her appearance and clothes are unkempt as her ‘little sailor hat of black straw' had ‘long been exposed to the soot of London' and ‘her hair needed washing badly'. This portrays her as having very little wealth and a low socio-economic status as she is not able to dress like or look like a lady.

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Vivian's apparel also conveys her social standing and to a greater extent her profession as a prostitute. On Hollywood Boulevarde, where she sells her ‘wares', Vivian fits in with the other ‘working girls' with her revealing clothes, heavy make-up and her ‘boots held up by a safety pin'. She keeps her boots black by using a black permanent marker to erase any wear and tear on them, instead of, perhaps, buying a new pair. Vivian though, we know, is not wealthy. She cannot afford to pay her rent money for her small, run down, apartment and prefers to escape seeing her landlord by using the fire escape ladder. As she searches for her room-mate Kit, on Hollywood Boulevard, the viewer can see that the area is accustomed to prostitutes, drug-dealers and, as Vivian happens to stumble on, dead bodies.

As she later relates the discovery of seeing ‘a girl pulled out of a dumpster' to Kit, she asks afterwards ‘Don't you want to get out of here?', obviously indicating that she dreams of a better life for herself. This aspiration is also shared by Eliza, for even before contemplating the idea to visit Professor Higgins for elocution lessons to become a flower-girl, she returns home to her squalid lodgings, ‘dreaming and planning' what to do with her ‘new riches' to better her life. Pinned up on the wall of Eliza's small room is a portrait of a popular actor and a fashion plate of ladies dresses torn from newspapers, an example of Eliza wanting articles to aspire for to decorate her life.

Henry and Edward share the same viewpoint of women's positioning in their life. Both have had bad experiences towards women, with the former having an almost misogynistic viewpoint of the ‘fairer sex'. Edward has had troubled relationships, what with having an ex-wife and an ex-girlfriend. In the first scene of Pretty Woman, we see Edward in a telephone conversation with his girlfriend Jessica, who accuses him of only wanting her at his ‘beck and call' and that due to this, she speaks more to his secretary than to him. She ends the conversation by informing him that she will move out of their apartment, thus terminating their relationship. Later, as Edward bumps into one of his ex-girlfriends, congratulating her on getting married lately, he asks her whether she spoke to his secretary more than she spoke to him during their relationship; she replies, referring to Edward's secretary, ‘she was my bridesmaid'. Due to Edward's troubled relationships, we can deduce that he would be wary of involvement with a woman. Further evidence is supplied when he ‘hires' Vivian to be his ‘employee' for the week, she responds with ‘I'd love to be your Beck and Call Girl but you're a rich good looking guy, you could get a million girls for free'. Edward refutes ‘I don't want any romantic hassles this week'. Edward later admits that he doesn't get emotionally involved in business; so his relationship with Vivian is seen in his eyes to be a purely business-like partnership. This argument is further strengthened by his conversation with Vivian when she tells him ‘Baby, I'm gonna treat you so good, you'll never let me go'. Edward coolly remarks ‘Three thousand, six days, and Vivian, I will let you go'. His response indicates that he sees Vivian as an object to use in the social settings when he needs her, not as a human being with emotions that may affect him, forcing a commitment. Higgins also doesn't want to become emotionally involved with a woman as he finds that ‘the moment I let myself make friends with a woman, I become selfish and tyrannical'. Higgins is comfortable as a ‘confirmed, old bachelor' and the presence of a woman would ‘upset everything', so he would also prefer to have no romantic hassles in his life either.

The introduction of Eliza into his life does not faze Henry Higgins though, as he sees Eliza as a bet to be won rather than a woman with emotions that can get hurt. When asked by Mrs. Pearce what is to become of Eliza once the experiment is accomplished, Higgins replies, ‘Well, when I've done with her, we can throw her back into the gutter; and then it will be her own business again; so that's alright'. Both men see Eliza and Vivian respectively as tools for their personal utility with no thought to what is to become of them after their usefulness has expired. The financial exchange for their services seems to justify this notion that this is a business affiliation, as Higgins says after Eliza runs away, ‘I paid five pounds for her'.That idea is also put into effect for, Edward expects Vivian to be waiting for him in the lobby for their dinner with Morse and not to pick her up from her room, because ‘this isn't a date, it's business'. Vivian retorts ‘ Well I'll meet you in the lobby but only because you're paying me to'.

Edward and Henry's temperament is similar though, and the women both handle the situations the same way demanding respect from their supposed superiors. Vivian and Edward quarrel after she is propositioned by Edward's friend and business partner, Phillip Stuckey, and during Vivian accuses Edward of treating her like a toy to be passed around by his friends. She tells him ‘you're not my pimp…. You don't own me. I say who, I say when'. Vivian likes to be in control of her life and won't be subjected to the indignity of being treated like a lower human being , she only agrees to stay with Edward once he apologises for what he had said.

Eliza also asserts herself against Higgins accusations against her character by saying ‘I'm a good girl, I am'. Despite her awareness of her inferior social status, she pertly reminds Higgins that if he were a gentleman he would ask her to sit down during their first meeting. Vivian asserts herself likewise when interrupted by Edward while singing in the bath, she questions him ‘Don't you knock?' Both women are not intimidated by their male superiors and are able to assert themselves when needed. This can be quite often as both male characters can be aloof and almost rude. Henry dismisses Eliza brusquely, ‘Why this is the girl I jotted down last night. She's no use. Be off with you. I don't want you', after she arrives unexpectantly at his house. Edward also can be quite tactless, his revelation to Phillip Stuckey that Vivian is a ‘hooker', causes her discomfort and pain because she does not welcome Phillips' advances.

Before Edward's revelation, no one at the polo match had suspected Vivian's origin. Phillip Stuckey's wife, Elizabeth, says to Edward, referring to Vivian; ‘She's sweet, wherever did you find her?'. Edward replies ‘nine, seven, six BABE'. While Elizabeth smiles not realising the hidden meaning of Edward's remark, Edward is jokingly making reference to his procurement of Vivian's ‘friendship' through less conventional means. Higgins also makes reference to Eliza's humble origins when at the Embassy Ball. While the others in his company try to place her origin, Higgins jokingly remarks ‘I say an ordinary London girl out of the gutter and taught to speak by an expert. I place her in Drury Lane'. The others laugh at his suggestion, for everyone at the Embassy Ball has been impressed by Eliza, most suspecting she is of royal blood. Her entrance into the Ball caused everyone around her to ‘stop talking to look at her, admiring her dress, her jewels and her strangely attractive self'. Some of the younger ones at the Ball stood on chairs to see her. Vivian's physical transformation also has the same effect of awe on the people around her. After returning home from shopping on Rodeo Drive, Vivian, now dressed sophisticatedly in stylish clothes, manages to attract admiring glances from men on the street and gain the attention of Barney, the hotel concierge, as she walks through the hotel.

Barney has watched Vivian throughout her metamorphoses, acting as a mentor when she needed help with social etiquette such as table manners and enabled her to be treated with respect, when purchasing a cocktail dress for dinner by introducing her to his friend, Bridget, who works in women's fashion. Eliza also needs direction on social etiquette. Higgins points out to her, when giving her a handkerchief, that it is ‘to wipe your eyes. To wipe any part of your face that feels moist. Remember, that's your handkerchief and that's your sleeve. Don't mistake the one for the other if you wish to become a lady in a shop'. Mrs. Pearce acts as a mentor as well, telling Eliza to have bath because ‘You can't be a nice girl if you look like a dirty slut on the outside.'

The transformation from flower girl to lady was not easy, with Eliza sometimes showing her inadequacies in filling her new role, especially in her earliest conversations with Freddy Eynsford Hill. After discussing the weather quite comically, though unbeknownst to her, Freddy laughs and exclaims ‘How awfully funny….The new small talk. You do it so awfully well!'. While Eliza's remarks are not suitable for her present company, they endear people towards her due to her naivety. Freddy is still impressed by Miss Doolittle for, after Mrs. Higgins asks Freddy if he would like to see Miss Doolittle again, he replies ‘Yes, I should most awfully!'. The same situation occurs with Vivian also. During her dinner with the Morses, her inability to use appropriate cutlery and to eat escargot, raises quite a few laughs and eases the tension between Edward and his adversaries.

A major presence in both texts is the women's economic vulnerability and financial dependence on men. As Eliza questions her future, Higgins represents the typical middle class view that women expect to marry in saying, ‘I should imagine you wont have much difficulty in settling yourself somewhere or other….. I daresay my mother could find some chap or other who would do very well'. Eliza interprets his comment as ‘selling herself' now that she is attractive. ‘We were above that at the corner of Tottenham Court Road…I sold flowers. I didn't sell myself'. Even though Eliza finds herself in tenuous circumstances, she still aspires for something better in her life now that she has undergone her transformation. Vivian too comes to this realisation. After Edward offers her a life of luxury and financial security, she rejects his offer saying ‘You made me a really nice offer and a few months ago, no problem, but now everything is different, you changed that and I can't go back'. Vivian knows she had gained confidence and self-worth after her week with Edward, realising she cannot go back to her old life of financial dependence on men, and decides she would not settle for a relationship that did not meet her ideal; ‘I want the fairytale' Vivian and Eliza both aspire to greater things after their metamorphoses, the former returning to school and the latter deciding to try teaching phonetics.

Edward and Henry both treat the women's newfound independence similarly. Edward and Henry still do not see Vivian and Eliza, respectively, as human beings, capable of emotions that do not mirror their own. Edward does not consider the fact that Vivian might not want to be financially supported by him for, after saying his money would keep her off the streets, she reacts ‘That's just geography'. He expects Vivian to continue on with their lifestyle of the past week even though she wishes for something more. This statement is also true of Higgins and Eliza. Eliza questions Higgins about the future ‘What am I fit for? What have you left me to? Where am I to go? What am I to do? What's to become of me?'. Higgins dismisses her paranoia, ‘How the devil do I know what's to become of you? What does it matter what becomes of you? Higgins, like Edward, does not consider Eliza's emotional state due to the fragility of her circumstances and just expects her to carry on as he is accustomed to, keeping track of his appointments and telling Mrs. Pearce how he likes his coffee. Eliza's struggle for independence from the constraints of the accepted medium occurs before our eyes, for her last words in Act III to Higgins are ‘You'd better leave a note for Mrs. Pearce about the coffee; for she won't hear it from me!'. Eliza no longer needs to be told what to say or to recite lines, she can assert herself and form opinions. By Act IV, a social poise and logical mind are added to her beauty and perfect accent and the emphasis is now on Eliza's emotional being rather than simply being an experiment.

While Pretty Woman is an appropriation of Pygmalion, the difference in the texts is the ending. While in Pygmalion, Eliza refuses to adhere to Higgins' proposal to return to his home to continue living with him and Pickering, Vivian and Edward's tale has a far more happier ending. After Vivian returns home to her modest apartment, preparing herself for a new and better life in San Francisco, Edward surprises her by arriving at her home in a limousine with a bouquet of flowers. He climbs on the fire escape to the top of Vivian's apartment block, even though he has mentioned before his great fear of heights, to ‘rescue her' like she wanted in her fairytale that she had mentioned before. Edward asks her ‘what happens after the prince in her fairytale climbed to the top of the tower and rescued her?'. Vivian replies ‘she rescues him right back'. This shows that while Edward's influence on Vivian positively changed her, she too changed him, making him capable of her love. Higgins, though finding Eliza's company agreeable and herself attractive, still does not change his character to oblige Eliza's feelings. He stubbornly tells Eliza ‘ if you come back, I shall treat you as I always have treated you. I can't change my nature'. Edward, however, does change through his company with Vivian. As Vivian's nature begins to emerge because of her outer transformation, she begins to transform him emotionally, now being capable of loving her and building relationships, both in business, such as with James Morse, as well as in his personal life.

The closing shot of the film is a pull-back from the couple kissing to a young black man who parades Hollywood Boulevarde preaching, ‘What's your dream? Everybody who comes to Hollywood's got a dream!' It seems that Vivian has finally achieved her dream and obtained the prince who rescues her from her troubled world.

The prevailing theme throughout both Pygmalion and Pretty Woman is the treatment of the higher classes to their social inferiors. Eliza and Vivian receive little respect from people of upper classes and are looked down upon. Though once they have undergone their physical transformation, they receive admiration and attention that they would never have gained before. Both texts show the superficiality of aristocracy and how easily, through imitation of wealth and breeding, one can join the elite classes that once judged them before.

Before being ‘sculpted' into the ‘perfect' woman, both Vivian and Eliza were treated harshly by people who thought themselves socially superior. Vivian's expedition to the exclusive stores on Rodeo Drive, ends in her feeling degraded by the shop assistants' refusals to wait on her. Eliza also is treated as a lower being by Professor Higgins when he first meets her, describing her as a ‘squashed cabbage leaf!' However, after their metamorphosis, both women are admired for their beauty, as mentioned before, and treated as ladies. The contrast of the treatment of the women, before and after their transformation, shows that society would only admire and respect women who adhered to the feminine ideal of the time. While Higgins was convinced that it was a person's speech that indicated their social class, and positioned them, Bernard Shaw seems to have a bigger viewpoint of the social hierarchy. He was attacking the preconceived notion that people assumed that the upper classes were superior essentially due to the lower classes being lazy and naturally inferior .By enabling Eliza to be mistaken for a princess through her diction, fine apparel and social moulding of Higgins and Pickering, Shaw was satirising the superior attitudes of the upper classes by showing that someone ‘inferior' could be up to their standard.

Vivian, as well, shows the inadequacies and flaws of the social structure of modern day society. Her revenge on the shop assistants who had shunned her and were now polite and courteous towards her, proves that even in 10's America, a person's worth and wealth was perceived by the way they dressed. After Kit sees Vivian after her transformation, she remarks ‘ You clean up real good. You wouldn't fit in at Boulevarde looking like you do.' Vivian retorts ‘ It's easy to clean up when you have money'. From this comment, we can deduce that all that a person needs to acquire a higher social status is money. Both texts show that the measure to judge somebody's wealth is a purely superficial one, and that an individual's character should be the real defining point. While both have the same prevailing theme, Pygmalion seems to be more highly critical of the social structure with its main purpose trying and satirise what Shaw thought were the inadequacies of society, and Pretty Woman's principle concern is to entertain the audience with romantic fiction, not to educate.

Pretty Woman is an appropriation of Pygmalion, but while it borrows many central plot and theme ideas, the two texts have a different purpose for their audience. As the plot develops, so do the characters in each text. Both Eliza and Vivian begin at the start of the ‘journey' in poverty, with no direction on how to change their life. The entrance of the male characters into the story begins the transformation of the two characters, ending with them both being able to assert themselves, demanding self respect from the their former ‘superior' male counterparts. While the women both evolve, the effect on the men is different than the female characters. Edward welcomes the change in his character, allowing Vivian to influence his personal and professional life. Henry, however , is resistant to change and this is the major difference in the appropriation of character development from Pygmalion to Pretty Woman. The main purpose of the play Pygmalion, was, for its writer Bernard Shaw, an opportunity to satirise what he thought was wrong with the society that he lived in at the turn of the century. While Pretty Woman does contain the same themes, the purpose of the film was to be a modern day fairytale, and its happy ever after ending was to satisfy today's film going public, not to provide them with an insight into the constructs and failures of the society in which they live in.

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THE GLOBAL ASSEMBLY LINE[[ Human Geography Textbook: Chapter 12 ]]• What is the global assembly line?• What new patterns of industrial activity has it produced?• Why are Nike's made in China?• How has the new global assembly line affected local and region

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[[ Human Geography Textbook Chapter 1 ]]

• What is the global assembly line?

• What new patterns of industrial activity has it produced?

Write my Essay on THE GLOBAL ASSEMBLY LINE[[ Human Geography Textbook: Chapter 12 ]]• What is the global assembly line?• What new patterns of industrial activity has it produced?• Why are Nike's made in China?• How has the new global assembly line affected local and region for me

• Why are Nikes made in China?

• How has the new global assembly line affected local and regional societies,

economies and environments?

1. Characteristics of the Global Assembly Line

From Fordism (p.50) to post-Fordism (p.5)

- see Table 1.1 on page 61.

- increased locational flexibility in time and space.

-from a spatially fixed to a spatially dispersed assembly line

- is this the end of geography? no…

An increasingly complex and interdependent system

Global scale spatial separation of manufacturing operations.

- example the global car.

Increased global outsourcing of materials and components.

- what is meant by outsourcing?

Global production chains the integration of production.

- just in time manufacturing on regional and global scales.

- note the dominance of TNCs in controlling these chains.

- borderless businesses and stateless organizations?

. Spatial Shifts in the Production of Goods and Services

Traditional Manufacturing Spaces

The G-7 and the OECD countries -- Western Europe, North America and Japan -- still

dominate global production with 80% of world manufacturing production by value. The U.S,

Japan and Germany account for 60%.

But the W.European and N.American shares have been declining the U.S. share declined

from 40% in 16 to 7% in 14.

This has resulted in the decline and abandonment of old industrial regions = rust belts. (

de-industrialization - see section 1.6 )

But also more recent manufacturing regions like Silicon Valley in California where the

computer industry first developed, have experienced decline as production moved offshore to

other regions.

New Economic Regions

- 160s rise of Japan, whose share of world manufacturing by value rose from 6% in 16 to

4% in 14.

The biggest shift has been to the Newly Industrial Countries (N.I.C.s)

- 160-80s South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong

- 180s early 0s Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, China.

- 10s to present Brazil, Mexico, Philippines, India, Eastern Europe

Overall we have seen the creation of new industrial zones and clusters of economic activity.

- new industrial spaces (p.p.68-70 in Human Geography)

. What Drives the Global Assembly Line ?

( Why are Nikes made in China ? - see box 1.6 )

Increased mobility of capital massive increase in foreign direct investment.

- see p.0 box 11.7 in the textbook.

The new and newer international divisions of labour.

- what is meant by division of labour?

- Nikes international subcontracting networks.

New technologies in materials and production systems.

- can you think of examples of new technologies which would influence the globalisation

of manufacturing?

Changing government policies.

- weakening labour laws (weakened safety net)

-the establishment of export production zones and maquiladoras.

- Transportation and trade, especially the move towards global free trade.

The Consumers World

( Read all of Chapter 14 in Human Geography )

Is there a geography of consumption?

Is there a global consumer culture?

How does consumerism relate to leisure and tourism?

__________________________________________

I. Consumer Society and Culture

The social production of false needs. A quote from Herbert Marcuses book

(164) One-Dimensional Man.

Marcuse believed that the products of consumer capitalism indoctrinate and

manipulate society to promote a false consciousness of needs which become a way

of life.

He saw this as another form of totalitarianism which binds consumers to producers

and uses the pleasures of consumer lifestyle as instruments of control and

domination.

Is this a profound threat to freedom and individuality?

Do you agree with Marcuses argument?

What arguments could you make against it?

II. The Geography of Consumerism

A. Local Consumer Spaces and Landscapes

- Consuming as a leisure activity.

- Your neighbourhood = living space = consumption space.

- Urban landscapes are consumed. How?

- The human geography of shopping malls

a) They are planned retail environments.

-developed, designed and managed as a single unit.

-tenancy and common areas are under private control.

-dominated by national and international retail chains.

b) Large suburban, planned malls emerged in the 160s.

-part of the private land development industry.

-synergy of developers and major retail chains.

c) The hollowing-out of many CBDs.

-especially along main streets of mid-sized towns.

-the major retail chain store moves to a suburban mall.

d) The privatization of public space.

-the internal space is built to encourage consumption.

-video cameras and guards = safety, but also monitoring

-operated for profit, not as an open space for gathering.

-the interaction of people is controlled.

B. Global Dispersal of Consumer Culture

Is there a global consumer culture?

( read the argument on pp. 407-414 of Human Geography )

What does indigenization mean?

How is it different from the concept homogenization?

The symbols of consumer culture may spread globally…

Coca-Cola, McDonalds, Microsoft, Marlboro, etc.

… but the meaning of these symbols changes in each new context. They may even

seem exotic.

Each symbol is incoporated into the local (indigenous) culture differently in

different places (at different times).

see the discussion of McDonalds on pp.411-41

If the values of the consumer society are becoming adopted in more and more places around the world…

…does this jeopardize the prospects for environmentally sustainable

development?

III. The Global Tourism Industry

Tourism, especially mass tourism is a good example of the globalization of

consumer culture in two ways

-it involves consumption by tourists of goods and services on a global scale (many

places in many countries).

-it plays a significant role in spreading the values and the material expressions of

consumer culture around the world.

A. The Rise of the Leisure Industry

The fastest growing sector of the global economy.

Sub-sectors include

Entertainment, shopping, fashion, travel, sports

Factors contributing to its emergence

growth of leisure time and expectations

increased real incomes

demographic and social change

changes in the nature of work

affluent retirement

the marketing of leisure

B. The Rise of Global Tourism

Increased demand for tourism…

emergence of leisure culture

escapism, desire to be elsewhere

desire for travel, to experience other places

education, to learn about other places

business travel

Increased supply of tourism opportunities…

transportation revolution

economic development policies

tour companies, travel agents

airlines and cruiselines

hotel and resort chains

travel credit plans - Air Miles

foreign direct investment in tourism

marketing of tourist destinations

C. Where Do the Tourists Go?

Dominance of W.Europe and N.America as both a source of tourists and a tourist

destination…

… however, the LDCs are increasingly popular.

Tourist visitors to the Caribbean

15 1.5million

165 .5 million

170 4.5 million

11 11.65 million (excluding cruise arrivals)

Since 185, this is an annual rate of increase of 7%, compared with the world average of

5.8%.

D. What are the Tourists Looking For?

The mass tourist experience

sun, sea and sand - the winter getaway, heliotropic landscape

entertainment - resorts, casinos

sports - golf, skiing, watersports

shopping

the complete package - enclaves, cruises

The selective experience scenery - the tourist gaze

history and heritage - the nostalgia industry

culture - art, architecture, folk tradition

environment - ecotourism

adventure - trekking, rafting

sex

E. Problems Associated With Tourism

The invasion syndrome.

Tourism as a questionable basis for development

a) economic concerns

-Appropriation of local business, property and employment to serve the needs of

tourists.

-Fabrication of a new, externally dependent sector that does not serve local needs.

-Exploitation of the local labour force with low wage, gender discrimination and

underemployment.

-Commodifying basic needs, e.g. supermarkets and fast-food.

b) environmental concerns

-Appropriating scenic areas, e.g. parks and coasts

-Fabricating tourist environments hotels, resorts, golf courses, theme parks =

reshaping the physical and cultural landscapes.

-Exploiting and degrading natural resources loss of agricultural land, coastal

erosion, animal habitat destruction, water depletion and pollution.

F. The Commodification of Nature

Ecotourism

Safari parks

Nature reserves

Is this a trend to be hopeful about? or is it an extension of past practices,

marketed in a new way?

Can tourism help to promote environmentally sustainable development?

Uneven Development, Marginalization and Poverty

• What is development?

• Why is it globally uneven?

• Does the Third World exist?

• What are the obstacles to sustainable and equitable development?

______________________________________________________________________________

I. The Meaning of Development

Evidence suggests that, despite recent increases in rates of global economic growth, the gap

between rich and poor countries, regions and people persists and even shows signs of

widening.

See 00 UN Report on the World Social Situation

http//www.un.org/esa/socdev/rwss/rwss00.htm

Canada, Income changes, 18-

Highest fifth +6.6% ($6,175)

Middle fifth - 1.0% ($44,01)

Lowest fifth - 5.% ($17,66)

In 18 the top 0% received $5.40 for every dollar that went to the bottom 0% = increase

from $4.80 in 14.

Global trends

Since 160, the start of the first United Nations Development Decade, disparities in global

wealth distribution have doubled.

By 1, wealthiest fifth of the world population controlled

86% of world income (GNP), 8% of world export markets,

68% of FDI, and 74% of the worlds phone lines.

The lowest fifth had 1% of world income.

In 160 the top 0% of countries had 0 times the average incomes of the poorest 0%.

By 15 this had risen to 8 times.

Increasing GDP in Latin America, but roughly same % living in poverty. A definition of development

Wealth is distributed throughout the population, is increasing faster than population growth, is

creating capital which is invested in infrastructure, both public and private, which stimulates

social and economic improvements.

Sustainable development

Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future

generations to meet their own needs. (UN Commission on Environment and Development,

184)

This embodies concepts of

• basic needs, and

• limitations on present and future carrying capacity of the environment, i.e. limits to growth.

II. Measurements of Disparity and Development

A. Financial

• Gross National (domestic) Product crude and per capita.

What are the problems with this as a measure of wealth?

Overall GDP in any country may increase, but this masks disparities between regions, sectors,

families and individuals.

• Distribution of income and wealth

e.g. the Gini Coefficient of Disparity

0 = perfect equality

1= perfect inequality

If you're particularly interested in the inequality issue go to this part of the World Bank

website

http//www.worldbank.org/poverty/inequal/index.htm

Gini coefficients Canada

18 total income 0.

after tax income 0.

14 total 0.4 (+1.4%)

after tax 0. (0%)

18 total 0.57 (+ 6.4%)

after tax 0.15 (+ 7.%)

Gini coefficients Mexico

184 total 0.41

14 total 0.54 (+11.8%)

Can you think of any weaknesses in this method of measuring income inequality?

What about looking at poverty levels?

For Canadian poverty rates, see the Canadian Council on Social Development website

http//www.ccsd.ca/facts.html

What are the problems of using poverty levels to measure disparities in levels of living?

For Developing countries we can use foreign debt ratio.

Measured as % of GDP over 00% in poorest countries.

What are the limitations of using income levels and distributions as indicators of levels of

development?

B. Social

Education and literacy

-Ratio of teachers to students

-Percent who complete various grade levels

-Percent who can read and write

Health and Welfare

-Nutrition

-Infant Mortality

-Medical Services

Employment

-Unemployment levels

-Working conditions, e.g. child labour

C. Infrastructure

Sanitation, Roads, Housing, Telecommunications

e.g. Haiti average per capita income = $50 per annum,

cell phone=$550 plus $0/month.

OECD countries have 16% of the world population but 1% of the internet users.

D. United Nations Human Development Index

Combines several measures of development

- Life expectancy at birth

- Adjusted GDP/capita

- Knowledge (literacy and education)

III. Concentrations of Wealth and Spreads of Poverty

• Structural

- concentrations of wealth in high tech industry; spreads of poverty in agriculture.

- concentrations of wealth in the hands of owners of capital and investors; spreads of

poverty amongst workers.

• Urban/rural

- metropolitan affluence, rural poverty

• Cores and Peripheries

- wealth at the centre, poverty around the edges

• Marginal Regions and Places

- the places left behind

- degraded environments

IV. Defining the Spaces of Development

(( Read pp. 75-7 in the Human Geography textbook ))

There are problems with the concept the Third World.

The arbitrariness of the North-South division - The Brandt Line.

The idea of two distinct worlds -- developed and underdeveloped -- is based on neo-colonial

attitudes and western values of development.

Are these concepts out-dated now because of globalization?

V. Theories of Development

(( Read pp. 80-8 in the Human Geography textbook ))

schools of thought (paradigms)

Modernization theory and Dependency theory

What are the main differences between these schools of thought ?

Which approach would you support and why?

VI. Globalization and Uneven Development

•Development occurs wherever investment yields the highest return.

•Capital is invested unevenly in time and space.

•Wealth concentrates in major capital centres the world cities.

As a result, flexibility of the system on a global scale in time and space causes shifts in

locations of development.

VII. Conclusion

How do the main elements of globalization that we have studied in the course cause uneven

development and increased disparity?

The Global Supermarket

e.g.

declining farm incomes

shift from local food production to export production

Global Assembly Line e.g.

maquiladoras and sweatshops

economic power of TNCs

Global Tourism

e.g.

dependency on foreign investment

vulnerability to global economic conditions

labour exploitation

The New World Order

e.g.

World Bank and IMF structural adjustment programmes and debt.

Free trade (WTO) and downward harmonization

Power of G-7

The New World Order

( read pp.444-45 and Chapter 16 in Human Geography )

Is there a new world order?

What are its main institutions?

Who controls it?

What are its underlying ideologies?

___________________________________________

U.S. President George Bush, Sr. - Sept.17, 10

Out of these troubled times… a new world order can emerge; a new era

- free from the threat of terror, stronger in the pursuit of justice, and

more secure in the quest for peace; an era in which the nations of the

world, east and West, North and South, can prosper and live in

harmony.

I. Geography of the Cold War, 14-18

( read pp.444-448 in the textbook )

Capitalist West vs. Communist East

U.S.A. vs. U.S.S.R.

Contrasting socio-economic systems private vs. public ownership of the means of

production.

Global scale nuclear military stand-off

Mutually Assured Destruction (M.A.D.)

The Iron Curtain in Europe

… therefore a cold war between superpowers

But… also, hot zones of containment

These are located in the rd World

Examples Korea, Cuba, Vietnam

… the domino effect metaphor of geo-politics

II. A New Global Political Economy

18 Collapse of the Soviet Bloc, end of the Cold War

New power relations one superpower (the U.S.A. and its satellites - N.A.T.O.

and the U.N.)

Breakdown of the last barriers to the global economy

now there is more and freer international commerce

shifts in trade patterns - U.S.A. is the worlds market

But… does the Cold War continue in Asia? ( see p.450 )

III. Institutions of the New World Order

A. Dominance of Nation-States

Issues of sovereignty and independence.

How are nations perceived/imagined?

- race, religion

- they identify a common history

- they represent an ideal social form

Are there nations without (place) states?

( see Box 16.1 on p.457 )

B. Sub-State Threats to this Dominance

Nationalist movements ( see Box 16. on p.464 )

Ethno-religious factionalism

Decline of central planning and state intervention

Privatisation of public institutions

De-regulation of free enterprise

C. Supra-State Threats

Political institutions and relations NATO, UN, EU

Economic institutions and activities

World Bank and I.M.F., World Trade Org.,

N.A.F.T.A., O.E.C.D., O.P.E.C., TNCs…

The global media

C.N.N., B.B.C., Al-Jazeera…

International non-governmental organisations

Greenpeace, Amnesty Intl., labour unions…

IV. Control of the New World Order

A. The Establishment

Trans-national corporations

Nation-states working together

G-8, E.U., U.N. Security Council

Financial institutions, investor organizations

The U.S. military

Technological dominance

Why attack Iraq

B. The Anti-Establishment

NGOs environmental, human rights, anti-poverty

The anti-globalization movement

Anarchists, union members, feminists…

Seattle, Quebec City fence, Montreal…

Canadians N. Klein, M. Barlow, J. Singh…

V. The Underlying Ideologies in Conflict

Neo-liberal the global free market, wealth trickles

Social democratic interdependence

Marxist global capitalism vs. international socialism

AlsoGreen the global commons, universal stewardship

(true) Anarchist smaller communities are better

Self-determination and human rights, respect diversity

Is there a Cyber-ideology? ...freedom of information

Is there really a clash of civilizations?

Please note that this sample paper on THE GLOBAL ASSEMBLY LINE[[ Human Geography Textbook: Chapter 12 ]]• What is the global assembly line?• What new patterns of industrial activity has it produced?• Why are Nike's made in China?• How has the new global assembly line affected local and region is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on THE GLOBAL ASSEMBLY LINE[[ Human Geography Textbook: Chapter 12 ]]• What is the global assembly line?• What new patterns of industrial activity has it produced?• Why are Nike's made in China?• How has the new global assembly line affected local and region, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on THE GLOBAL ASSEMBLY LINE[[ Human Geography Textbook: Chapter 12 ]]• What is the global assembly line?• What new patterns of industrial activity has it produced?• Why are Nike's made in China?• How has the new global assembly line affected local and region will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Culture and Management

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What is management?

Management is creative problem solving. This creative problem solving is accomplished through four functions of management planning, organizing, leading and controlling. The intended result is the use of an organizations resources in a way that accomplishes its mission and objectives. (Higgins, page 7)

In Management Excel, this standard definition is modified to align more closely with our teaching objectives and to communicate more clearly the content of the organizing function. Organizing is divided into organizing and staffing so that the importance of staffing in small businesses receives emphasis along side organizing. In the management literature, directing and leading are used interchangeably.

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While most research on organization-environment interactions concerns itself with the effect of environment on well-established organizations, Stinchcombe argues that the environment at time of founding has the greatest impact.

Stinchcombe states that organizations which are founded at a particular time must construct their social systems with the social resources available, suggesting an imprinting argument of organizational form. As a result of structural inertia, among other factors, there tends to be a strong correlation between the structural form exhibited by an organization at any time and the date of its founding.

lines of research imprinting, liability of newness, and revolutions

Imprinting

There is a specific time in organizational history where imprinting really matters. Cohorts of organizations are imprinted with the social, cultural, and technical features that are common in the environment when the cohort is founded, these are highly resistant to change.

Organizations need capital and people. Question is how organizations can get people to hand time and money over to them. Organizations need legitimacy endorsement. People who control key resources have mental models of what an organization should be. If people present an organization that defies mental model, theyll have a hard time getting valued resources.

Liability of Newness

New organizations and especially new forms of organizations are likely to fail.

New forms of organizations lack reliability and legitimacy (compare w/ Hannan & Freemans density dependence theory).

Social structure (groups, institutions, laws, social relations) and its effect on organization (stable social relations deliberately created for accomplishing specific goal); founding; liability of newness; trust, learn new roles, stable ties, embeddedness; importance of environment/surroundings (political, social, economic, and legal); money economy, revolution; political stability and military stabilization affect organization capacity; isomorphism (see Scott p. 15); ranking of organizations brings competition and dependence

Pfeffer (18184-85); Scott (115)

Hofstedes Dimensions of culture

Power Distance (PD) -The degree of inequality among people. In organizations, Power Distance is related to the degree of centralization of authority and autocratic leadership. The higher the PD score the more inequity between the superior and a subordinate.

Individualism vs. Collectivism (IDV) -The relation between an individual and his or her fellow individuals. In collectivist societies, group interests supercede those of individuals. The higher the IDV score the more a culture emphasizes the right and obligations of the individual over the group.

Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) -Uncertainty avoidance involves the acceptance or tolerance of uncertainty. High uncertainty avoidance societies socialize their members not to accept uncertainty. The higher the UAI score the less the citizen of a culture are comfortable with ambiguity.

Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS) - In masculine societies, masculine social values such as the importance of showing off; achieving something visible, or making money predominate, while feminine societies would be more oriented to quality of life and personal relationships. The higher the MAS score the more masculine a culture is.

Various skills are related to each of the four management functions.

Planning

Skills required for Examples of skills Application

Planning Strategic thinking Highly developed conceptual skillsCapacity to view organisation as a wholeProduct-related and technical knowledgeUnderstanding of what can be done now

Vision Clear focus on the big pictureAble to perceive opportunityClear foresightAble to integrate component parts into an interacting wholeKnowledge of support services

Decision making Awareness of alternatives through ability to assemble data Ability to assess alternatives and decide Creative and lateral thinking skills Clear understanding of the competing interests of stakeholders; ability to maintain a balance between competing goals Highly developed conceptual understanding of all interacting parts Ability to communicate decisions clearly

Organising

Skills required for Examples of skills Application

Organising Self managing Time management skills Capacity to stay focused Understanding of the role of support services in the organisational framework

Teamwork Providing networks for effective information flow Coach, teacher, mentor roles in creating and developing groups Delegation of team roles, tasks and responsibility

Leading

Skills required for Examples of skills Application

Leading People skills Understanding how people think and act Ability to motivate workers Creation of a harmonious workplace Effective written and oral communication skills Successful delegation

Complex problem solving Ability to gather and assess data to isolate a problem Sensitivity to the needs of others Procedures for dispute resolution Negotiation skills learned and practised

Ethical and high personal standards Generally agreed qualities of decisiveness, consistency, responsiveness, trustworthiness, friendliness and approachability

Controlling

Skills required for Examples of skills Application

Controlling Skills involving setting of performance standards & measurement of performance Technical measurement and diagnostic skills A wide variety of effective communication skills Preparedness to face up to identified weaknesses

Flexibility & adaptability to change Willingness to move in a new direction Constant evaluation of decisions taken in the light of subsequent performance Consistent monitoring of the changing external environment

PLANNING

Planning is concerned with the future impact of todays decisions. It is the fundamental function of management from which the other four stem. The need for planning is often apparent after the fact. However, planning is easy to postpone in the short-run. Postponement of planning especially plagues labor oriented, hands on managers.

The organizing, staffing, leading and controlling functions stem from the planning function (Higgins, Figure 6.1.) The manager is ready to organize and staff only after goals and plans to reach the goals are in place. Likewise, the leading function, influencing the behavior of people in the organization, depends on the goals to be achieved. Finally, in the controlling function, the determination of whether or not goals are being accomplished and standards met is based on the planning function. The planning function provides the goals and standards that drive the controlling function.

Planning is important at all levels of management. However, its characteristics vary by level of management. (Figure 6.) Note in this figure that the characteristics of the world being simple, certain, structured and short-term often become rationalizations for top managers not to plan. Top managers acting as if they are lower level managers plagues planning.

Planning Terminology

Basic planning terminology is illustrated in Figure 6.. The order from general to specific is vision-mission-objectives-goals (Figure 6.4.) (Note--In ManagementExcel practice established before the use of Higgins as the basic reference, we adopted the order vision-mission-objectives-goals. The Higgins text switches the order of objectives and goals. In reading the Higgins text, simply substitute the term objective for goal and the term goal for objective.) The key terms are defined as follows

Vision Nonspecific directional and motivational guidance for the entire organization. Top managers normally provide a vision for the business. It is the most emotional of the four levels in the hierarchy of purposes.

Mission An organizations reason for being. It is concerned with scope of the business and what distinguishes this business from similar businesses. Mission reflects the culture and values of top management.

Objectives Objectives refine the mission and address key issues within the organization such as market standing, innovation, productivity, physical and financial resources, profitability, management and worker performance and efficiency. They are expected to be general, observable, challenging, and untimed.

Goals Goals are specific statements of anticipated results that further define the organizations objectives. They are expected to be SMART Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Rewarding, and Timed.

Development of tactics is a fifth level of planning. Tactics, the most specific and narrow plans, describe who, what, when, where and how activities will take place to accomplish a goal.

Strategic Planning

Strategic planning is one specific type of planning. Strategies are the outcome of strategic planning. An organizations strategies define the business the firm is in, the criteria for entering the business, and the basic actions the organization will follow in conducting its business (Higgins, Page .) Strategies are major plans that commit large amounts of the organizations resources to proposed actions, designed to achieve its major objectives and goals. Strategic planning is the process by which the organizations strategies are determined (Figure 7..) In the process, three basic questions are answered

1. Where are we now?

. Where do we want to be?

. How do we get there?

The where are we now? question is answered through the first three steps of the strategy formulation process (1) perform internal and external environmental analyses, () review vision, mission and objectives, and () determine SWOT Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. SWOT analysis requires managers to be honest, self-disciplined and thorough. Going on to strategy choices without a comprehensive SWOT analysis is risky.

Strengths and weaknesses come from the internal environment of the firm. Strengths can be exploited, built upon and made key to accomplishment of mission and objectives. Strengths reflect past accomplishments in production, financial, marketing and human resource management. Weaknesses are internal characteristics that have the potential to limit accomplishment of mission and objectives. Weaknesses may be so important that they need to be addressed before any further strategic planning steps are taken.

Opportunities and threats are uncontrollable by management because they are external to the firm. Opportunities provide the firm the possibility of a major improvement. Threats may stand in the way of a firm reaching its mission and objectives.

ORGANISING

Organizing is establishing the internal organizational structure of the business. The focus is on division, coordination, and control of tasks and the flow of information within the organization. Managers distribute responsibility and authority to jobholders in this function of management.

Organizational Structure

Each organization has an organizational structure. By action and/or inaction, managers structure businesses. Ideally, in developing an organizational structure and distributing authority, managers decisions reflect the mission, objectives, goals and tactics that grew out of the planning function. Specifically, they decide

1. Division of labor

. Delegation of authority

. Departmentation

4. Span of control

5. Coordination

Management must make these decisions in any organization that has more than two people. Small may not be simple. Note Dan and Nancys organizational alternatives in the third transparency for this section. Dan and Nancy have three organizational chart alternatives for their two person business. As shown on the page following Dan and Nancys organization charts, who reports to whom and why may not be apparent in a slightly more complex business with three employees and five family members involved.

Organizational structure is particularly important in family businesses where each family member has three hats (multiple roles) family, business and personal. Confusion among these hats complicates organizational structure decisions.

Division of Labor

Division of labor is captured in an organization chart, a pictorial representation of an organizations formal structure. An organization chart is concerned with relationships among tasks and the authority to do the tasks. Eight kinds of relationships can be captured in an organization chart

1. The division/specialization of labor

. Relative authority

. Departmentation

4. Span of control

5. The levels of management

6. Coordination centers

7. Formal communication channels

8. Decision responsibility

Organization charts have important weaknesses that should be of concern to managers developing and using them

1. They may imply a formality that doesnt exist.

. They may be inconsistent with reality.

. Their usual top down perspective often minimizes the role of customers, front-line managers and employees without management responsibilities.

4. They fail to capture the informal structure and informal communication.

5. They often imply that a pyramidal structure is the best or only way to organize.

6. They fail to address the potential power and authority of staff positions compared with line positions.

Delegation of Authority

Authority is legitimized power. Power is the ability to influence others. Delegation is distribution of authority. Delegation frees the manager from the tyranny of urgency. Delegation frees the manager to use his or her time on high priority activities. Note that delegation of authority does not free the manager from accountability for the actions and decisions of subordinates.

Delegation of authority is guided by several key principles and concepts

Exception principle - Someone must be in charge. A person higher in the organization handles exceptions to the usual. The most exceptional, rare, or unusual decisions end up at the top management level because no one lower in the organization has the authority to handle them.

Scalar chain of command - The exception principle functions in concert with the concept of scalar chain of command - formal distribution of organizational authority is in a hierarchial fashion. The higher one is in an organization, the more authority one has.

Decentralization - Decisions are to be pushed down to the lowest feasible level in the organization. The organizational structure goal is to have working managers rather than managed workers.

Parity principle - Delegated authority must equal responsibility. With responsibility for a job must go the authority to accomplish the job.

Span of control - The span of control is the number of people a manager supervises. The organizational structure decision to be made is the number of subordinates a manager can effectively lead. The typical guideline is a span of control of no more than 5-6 people. However, a larger span of control is possible depending on the complexity, variety and proximity of jobs.

Unity principle - Ideally, no one in an organization reports to more than one supervisor. Employees should not have to decide which of their supervisors to make unhappy because of the impossibility of following all the instructions given them.

Line and staff authority - Line authority is authority within an organization's or units chain of command. Staff authority is advisory to line authority. Assume a crew leader reports to the garden store manager who in turn reports to the president. Further assume that the crew leader and store manager can hire and fire, and give raises to the people they supervise. Both the crew leader and store manager have line authority. To contrast, assume that the president has an accountant who prepares monthly financial summaries with recommendations for corrective action. The accountant has staff authority but not line authority.

Departmentation

Departmentation is the grouping of jobs under the authority of a single manager, according to some rational basis, for the purposes of planning, coordination and control. The number of departments in an organization depends on the number of different jobs, i.e., the size and complexity of the business.

Farm businesses are most likely to have departments reflecting commodities and services. For example, a large dairy farm might be organized into dairy, crop, equipment and office departments. The dairy department might be further divided into milking, mature animal and young stock departments.

Informal Structure

The formal structure in each organization that has been put in place by management has an accompanying informal structure. Management does not and cannot control the informal structure.

The informal structure has no written rules, is fluid in form and scope, is not easy to identify, and has vague or unknown membership guidelines.

For management, the informal structure may be positive or negative. Positive qualities include the ability to quickly spread information and provide feedback to the information. The informal structure gives people a sense of being in the know. Management can feed information into the informal structure at very low cost. The informal structure can also help satisfy employees social needs.

The negative qualities of the informal structure mirror the positive qualities in several ways. The juicier a rumor, the more likely is the informal structure to repeat it, expand it and make it into the truth. Management may not know what information is flowing through the informal structure. Employees can waste a great deal of time nurturing and participating in the informal structure. Finally, the informal structure can fence out new employees, rate breakers, and change agents no matter the extent to which the formal structure makes them a part of the organization.

This discussion of organizing principles draws on the basic reference for Management Excel teaching James Higgins, The Management Challenge, Second Edition, Macmillan, 14. The text provides a more detailed discussion of the key points included in this outline.

LEADERSHIP……….

CONTROLLING

Controlling is a four-step process of establishing performance standards based on the firms objectives, measuring and reporting actual performance, comparing the two, and taking corrective or preventive action as necessary.

Performance standards come from the planning function. No matter how difficult, standards should be established for every important task. Although the temptation may be great, lowering standards to what has been attained is not a solution to performance problems. On the other hand, a manager does need to lower standards when they are found to be unattainable due to resource limitations and factors external to the business.

Corrective action is necessary when performance is below standards. If performance is anticipated to be below standards, preventive action must be taken to ensure that the problem does not recur. If performance is greater than or equal to standards, it is useful to reinforce behaviors that led to the acceptable performance.

Characteristics of the Control Process

The control process is cyclical which means it is never finished. Controlling leads to identification of new problems that in turn need to be addressed through establishment of performance standards, measuring performance etc.

Employees often view controlling negatively. By its very nature, controlling often leads to management expecting employee behavior to change. No matter how positive the changes may be for the organization, employees may still view them negatively.

Control is both anticipatory and retrospective. The process anticipates problems and takes preventive action. With corrective action, the process also follows up on problems.

Ideally, each person in the business views control as his or her responsibility. The organizational culture should prevent a person walking away from a small, easily solvable problem because that isnt my responsibility. In customer driven businesses, each employee cares about each customer. In quality driven dairy farms, for example, each employee cares about the welfare of each animal and the wear and tear on each piece of equipment.

Controlling is related to each of the other functions of management. Controlling builds on planning, organizing and leading. (Figure 18.)

Management Control Strategies

Managers can use one or a combination of three control strategies or styles market, bureaucracy and clan. (Figure 18.) Each serves a different purpose. External forces make up market control. Without external forces to bring about needed control, managers can turn to internal bureaucratic or clan control. The first relies primarily on budgets and rules. The second relies on employees wanting to satisfy their social needs through feeling a valued part of the business.

Self-control, sometimes called adhocracy control, is complementary to market, bureaucratic and clan control. By training and encouraging individuals to take initiative in addressing problems on their own, there can be a resulting sense of individual empowerment. This empowerment plays out as self-control. The self-control then benefits the organization and increases the sense of worth to the business in the individual.

Designing Effective Control Systems

Effective control systems have the following characteristics

1. Control at all levels in the business (Figure 1.1)

. Acceptability to those who will enforce decisions

. Flexibility

4. Accuracy

5. Timeliness

6. Cost effectiveness

7. Understandability

8. Balance between objectivity and subjectivity

. Coordinated with planning, organizing and leading

Dysfunctional Consequences of Control

Managers expect people in an organization to change their behavior in response to control. However, employee resistance can easily make control efforts dysfunctional. The following behaviors demonstrate means by which the managers control efforts can be frustrated

1. Game playing-- control is something to be beaten, a game between the boss and me and I want to win.

. Resisting control-- a blue flu reaction to too much control

. Providing inaccurate information -- a lack of understanding of why the information is needed and important leading to you want numbers, we will give you numbers.

4. Following rules to the letter-- people following dumb and unprofitable rules in reaction to do as I say.

5. Sabotaging -- stealing, discrediting other workers, chasing customers away, gossiping about the firm to people in the community

6. Playing one manager off against another -- exploiting lack of communication among managers, asking a second manager if dont like the answer from the first manager

Bartol, K.M., Martin, D.C., Tein, M. & Matthews, G. (00). Management A Pacific Rim focus. (rd edition) Sydney McGraw Hill.

Davidson, P. and Griffin, R.W. (00). Management AN Australasian Perspective. (nd edition) Brisbane Wiley.

Higgins J. (14). The Management Challenge. (nd edition) Macmillan.

Hofstede. G., Cultures and Organizations Software of the Mind. New York, NYM McGraw-Hill.

http//www.siemens.com/Daten/siecom/India/CC/Internet/Siemens_Corporate/WORKAREA/in_ed_cc/templatedata/English/file/binary/Siemens_Ltd_Q_00_Results_108448.pdf SIEMENS INDIA, Accessed 0pm August , 00 (INDIA)

http//www.siemens.com/Daten/siecom/HQ/CC/Internet/Corporate_Press/WORKAREA/ccp_cc/templatedata/English/file/binary/AXX00074_1084446.pdf SIEMENS AUSTRALIA, Accessed 16pm August , 00

http//www.ir.nestle.com/pdf/English/00_ZoneFocus.pdf NESTLE GLOBAL, Accessed 16pm August 1, 00

Please note that this sample paper on Culture and Management is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Culture and Management, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Culture and Management will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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